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Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. According to philosophical materialism, mind and consciousness are by-products or epiphenomena of material processes (e.g. the biochemistry of the human brain and nervous system) without which they cannot exist. This concept directly contrasts with idealism, where mind and consciousness are first-order realities to which matter is subject and material interactions are secondary.

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Materialist theories are mainly divided into three groups. Naive materialism identifies the material world with specific elements (e.g. the scheme of the four elements—fire, air, water and earth—devised by the pre-Socratic philosopherEmpedocles). Metaphysical materialism examines separated parts of the world in a static, isolated environment. Dialectical materialism adapts the Hegelian dialectic for materialism, examining parts of the world in relation to each other within a dynamic environment.

Materialism is closely related to physicalism—the view that all that exists is ultimately physical. Philosophical physicalism has evolved from materialism with the theories of the physical sciences to incorporate more sophisticated notions of physicality than mere ordinary matter (e.g. spacetime, physical energies and forces, and dark matter). Thus the term physicalism is preferred over materialism by some, while others use the terms as if they are synonymous.

Existentialism and Classroom Practice www.iosrjournals.org 89 Page the soul is something like that which has lost its possibility and potentiality. Hence, we come to the point that Kierkegaard‟s aims of education would be to arouse sentiments, feelings and emotions so that a student may.

Philosophies contradictory to materialism or physicalism include idealism, pluralism, dualism, and other forms of monism.

2History
- 2.4Contemporary philosophy
5Criticism and alternatives
- 5.1From scientists
- 5.3Philosophical objections

Overview[edit]

In 1748, French doctor and philosopher La Mettrie exposes the first materialistic definition of the human soul in L'Homme Machine

Materialism belongs to the class of monistontology. As such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism, neutral monism and spiritualism.

Despite the large number of philosophical schools and subtle nuances between many,^[1]^[2]^[3] all philosophies are said to fall into one of two primary categories, which are defined in contrast to each other: idealism and materialism.^[a] The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality—the primary distinction between them is the way they answer two fundamental questions: 'what does reality consist of?' and 'how does it originate?' To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas) are primary, and matter secondary. To materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary—the product of matter acting upon matter.^[3]

The materialist view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically by René Descartes; however, by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized. In practice, it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another.

Materialism is often associated with reductionism, according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description, if they are genuine, must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description—typically, at a more reduced level. Non-reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion, however, taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects, properties or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents. Jerry Fodor argues this view, according to which empirical laws and explanations in 'special sciences' like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics.^{[citation needed]}

Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition of other scientifically observable entities such as energy, forces and the curvature of space; however, philosophers such as Mary Midgley suggest that the concept of 'matter' is elusive and poorly defined.^[4]

Materialism typically contrasts with dualism, phenomenalism, idealism, vitalism and dual-aspect monism. Its materiality can, in some ways, be linked to the concept of determinism, as espoused by Enlightenment thinkers.^{[citation needed]}

During the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels extended the concept of materialism to elaborate a materialist conception of history centered on the roughly empirical world of human activity (practice, including labor) and the institutions created, reproduced or destroyed by that activity (see materialist conception of history). They also developed dialectical materialism, through taking Hegelian dialectics, stripping them of their idealist aspects and fusing them with materialism^[5] (see Modern philosophy).

History[edit]

Axial Age[edit]

Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during what Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age (c. 800–200 BC).

In ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BC with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy. Kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism. The Nyaya–Vaisesika school (c. 600–100 BC) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism (although their proofs of God and their positing that consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists). Buddhist atomism and the Jaina school continued the atomic tradition.^{[citation needed]}

Ancient Greekatomists like Leucippus, Democritus and Epicurus prefigure later materialists. The Latin poem De Rerum Natura by Lucretius (99 – c. 55 BC) reflects the mechanistic philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, and all phenomena result from different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called 'atoms' (literally: 'indivisibles'). De Rerum Natura provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind and sound. Famous principles like 'nothing can touch body but body' first appeared in the works of Lucretius. Democritus and Epicurus, however, did not hold to a monist ontology since they held to the ontological separation of matter and space (i.e. space being 'another kind' of being) indicating that the definition of 'materialism' is wider than the given scope of this article.^{[citation needed]}

Common Era[edit]

Wang Chong (27 – c. 100 AD) was a Chinese thinker of the early Common Era said to be a materialist.^[6]

Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta (6th century) in his work Tattvopaplavasimha ('The upsetting of all principles') refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology. The materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400; when Madhavacharya compiled Sarva-darśana-samgraha (a digest of all philosophies) in the 14th century, he had no Cārvāka/Lokāyata text to quote from or refer to.^[7]

In early 12th-century al-Andalus, the Arabian philosopher, Ibn Tufail (a.k.a. Abubacer), wrote discussions on materialism in his philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus), while vaguely foreshadowing the idea of a historical materialism.^[8]

Modern philosophy[edit]

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)^[9] and Pierre Gassendi (1592–1665)^[10] represented the materialist tradition in opposition to the attempts of René Descartes (1596–1650) to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations. There followed the materialist and atheistabbéJean Meslier (1664–1729) and the works of the French materialists: Julien Offray de La Mettrie, the German-French Baron d'Holbach (1723–1789), Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and other French Enlightenment thinkers. In England, John 'Walking' Stewart (1747–1822) insisted on seeing matter as endowed with a moral dimension, which had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of William Wordsworth (1770–1850).

In late modern philosophy, German atheist anthropologistLudwig Feuerbach would signal a new turn in materialism through his book The Essence of Christianity (1841), which presented a humanist account of religion as the outward projection of man's inward nature. Feuerbach's anthropological materialism^[11] (a version of materialism which views materialist anthropology as the universal science) would later heavily influence Karl Marx,^[12] who in the late 19th century elaborated the concept of historical materialism—the basis for what Marx and Friedrich Engels outlined as scientific socialism:

The materialist conception of history starts from the proposition that the production of the means to support human life and, next to production, the exchange of things produced, is the basis of all social structure; that in every society that has appeared in history, the manner in which wealth is distributed and society divided into classes or orders is dependent upon what is produced, how it is produced, and how the products are exchanged. From this point of view, the final causes of all social changes and political revolutions are to be sought, not in men's brains, not in men's better insights into eternal truth and justice, but in changes in the modes of production and exchange. They are to be sought, not in the philosophy, but in the economics of each particular epoch.

— Friedrich Engels, Socialism: Scientific and Utopian (1880)

Engels later developed a 'materialist dialectic' philosophy of nature (Dialectics of Nature, 1883). Engels's worldview was given the title 'dialectical materialism' by Georgi Plekhanov, the father of Russian Marxism.^[13] In early 20th-century Russian philosophy, Vladimir Lenin further developed dialectical materialism in his book Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), which connected the political conceptions put forth by his opponents to their anti-materialist philosophies.

A more naturalist-oriented materialist school of thought that developed in the middle of the 19th century (also in Germany) was German materialism: members included Ludwig Büchner, Jacob Moleschott and Karl Vogt.^[14]^[15]

Contemporary philosophy[edit]

Analytic philosophy[edit]

Contemporaryanalytic philosophers (e.g. Daniel Dennett, Willard Van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Jerry Fodor) operate within a broadly physicalist or scientific materialist framework, producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate the mind, including functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory, and so on.^[16]

Scientific materialism is often synonymous with, and has typically been described as being, a reductive materialism. In the early twenty-first century, Paul and Patricia Churchland advocated a radically contrasting position (at least, in regards to certain hypotheses); eliminativist materialism holds that some mental phenomena simply do not exist at all, and that talk of those mental phenomena reflects a totally spurious 'folk psychology' and introspection illusion. An eliminative materialist might believe that a concept like 'belief' simply has no basis in fact (e.g. the way folk science speaks of demon-caused illnesses). With reductive materialism being at one end of a continuum (our theories will reduce to facts) and eliminative materialism on the other (certain theories will need to be eliminated in light of new facts), revisionary materialism is somewhere in the middle.^[16]

Continental philosophy[edit]

Contemporarycontinental philosopherGilles Deleuze has attempted to rework and strengthen classical materialist ideas.^[17] Contemporary theorists such as Manuel DeLanda, working with this reinvigorated materialism, have come to be classified as 'new materialist' in persuasion.^[18]New materialism has now become its own specialized subfield of knowledge, with courses being offered on the topic at major universities, as well as numerous conferences, edited collections and monographs devoted to it. Jane Bennett's book Vibrant Matter (2010) has been particularly instrumental in bringing theories of monist ontology and vitalism back into a critical theoretical fold dominated by poststructuralist theories of language and discourse.^[19] Scholars such as Mel Y. Chen and Zakiyyah Iman Jackson, however, have critiqued this body of new materialist literature for its neglect in considering the materiality of race and gender in particular.^[20]^[21] Other scholars such as Hélene Vosters have questioned whether there is anything particularly 'new' about this so-called 'new materialism', as Indigenous and other animist ontologies have attested to what might be called the 'vibrancy of matter' for centuries.^[22]

Quentin Meillassoux proposed speculative materialism, a post-Kantian return to David Hume which is also based on materialist ideas.^[23]

Defining matter[edit]

The nature and definition of matter—like other key concepts in science and philosophy—have occasioned much debate.^[24] Is there a single kind of matter (hyle) which everything is made of, or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (hylomorphism)^[25] or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)?^[26] Does it have intrinsic properties (substance theory)^[27]^[28] or is it lacking them (prima materia)?

One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible 'stuff' came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, the Standard Model of particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions. On this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field.^{[citation needed]}

According to the dominant cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, less than 5% of the universe's energy density is made up of the 'matter' described by the Standard Model, and the majority of the universe is composed of dark matter and dark energy, with little agreement among scientists about what these are made of.^[29]

With the advent of quantum physics, some scientists believed the concept of matter had merely changed, while others believed the conventional position could no longer be maintained. For instance Werner Heisenberg said, 'The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct 'actuality' of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range. This extrapolation, however, is impossible.. atoms are not things.'^{[citation needed]} Likewise, some philosophers^[which?] feel that these dichotomies necessitate a switch from materialism to physicalism. Others use the terms 'materialism' and 'physicalism' interchangeably.^[30]

The concept of matter has changed in response to new scientific discoveries. Thus materialism has no definite content independent of the particular theory of matter on which it is based. According to Noam Chomsky, any property can be considered material, if one defines matter such that it has that property.^[31]

Physicalism[edit]

George Stack distinguishes between materialism and physicalism:

In the twentieth century, physicalism has emerged out of positivism. Physicalism restricts meaningful statements to physical bodies or processes that are verifiable or in principle verifiable. It is an empirical hypothesis that is subject to revision and, hence, lacks the dogmatic stance of classical materialism. Herbert Feigl defended physicalism in the United States and consistently held that mental states are brain states and that mental terms have the same referent as physical terms. 900 cau hoi thi nail tieng vietnam. The twentieth century has witnessed many materialist theories of the mental, and much debate surrounding them.^[32]

However, not all conceptions of physicalism are tied to verificationist theories of meaning or direct realist accounts of perception. Rather, physicalists believe that no “element of reality” is missing from the mathematical formalism of our best description of the world. “Materialist” physicalists also believe that the formalism describes fields of insentience. In other words, the intrinsic nature of the physical is non-experiential.^{[citation needed]}

Criticism and alternatives[edit]

From scientists[edit]

Rudolf Peierls, a physicist who played a major role in the Manhattan Project, rejected materialism, saying, 'The premise that you can describe in terms of physics the whole function of a human being [..] including knowledge and consciousness, is untenable. There is still something missing'.^[33]

Erwin Schrödinger said, 'Consciousness cannot be accounted for in physical terms. For consciousness is absolutely fundamental. It cannot be accounted for in terms of anything else'.^[34]

Werner Heisenberg, who came up with the uncertainty principle, wrote, 'The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct ‘actuality’ of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range. This extrapolation, however, is impossible…Atoms are not things'.^[35]

Quantum mechanics[edit]

Some 20th-century physicists (such as Eugene Wigner^[36] and Henry Stapp)^[37] and modern day physicists and science writers (such as Stephen Barr,^[38]Paul Davies and John Gribbin) have argued that materialism is flawed due to certain recent scientific findings in physics, such as quantum mechanics and chaos theory. In 1991, Gribbin and Davies released their book The Matter Myth, the first chapter of which, 'The Death of Materialism', contained the following passage:

Then came our Quantum theory, which totally transformed our image of matter. The old assumption that the microscopic world of atoms was simply a scaled-down version of the everyday world had to be abandoned. Newton's deterministic machine was replaced by a shadowy and paradoxical conjunction of waves and particles, governed by the laws of chance, rather than the rigid rules of causality. An extension of the quantum theory goes beyond even this; it paints a picture in which solid matter dissolves away, to be replaced by weird excitations and vibrations of invisible field energy.Quantum physics undermines materialism because it reveals that matter has far less 'substance' than we might believe. But another development goes even further by demolishing Newton's image of matter as inert lumps. This development is the theory of chaos, which has recently gained widespread attention.

— Paul Davies and John Gribbin, The Matter Myth, Chapter 1

Digital physics[edit]

The objections of Davies and Gribbin are shared by proponents of digital physics who view information rather than matter to be fundamental. Famous physicist and proponent of digital physics John Archibald Wheeler wrote, 'all matter and all things physical are information-theoretic in origin and this is a participatory universe'.^[39] Their objections were also shared by some founders of quantum theory, such as Max Planck, who wrote:

As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent Mind. This Mind is the matrix of all matter.

James Jeans concurred with Planck saying, 'The Universe begins to look more like a great thought than like a great machine. Mind no longer appears to be an accidental intruder into the realm of matter'.^[40]

Religious and spiritual views[edit]

According to Constantin Gutberlet writing in Catholic Encyclopedia (1911), materialism, defined as 'a philosophical system which regards matter as the only reality in the world [..] denies the existence of God and the soul'.^[41] In this view, materialism could be perceived incompatible with world religions that ascribe existence to immaterial objects.^[42] Materialism could be conflated with atheism.^{[citation needed]} However, Friedrich Lange wrote in 1892, 'Diderot has not always in the Encyclopædia expressed his own individual opinion, but it is just as true that at its commencement he had not yet got as far as Atheism and Materialism'.^[43]

Most of Hinduism and transcendentalism regard all matter as an illusion called Maya, blinding humans from knowing the truth. Transcendental experiences like the perception of Brahman are considered to destroy the illusion.^[44]

Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, taught: 'There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter.'^[45] This spirit element is believed to always have existed and to be co-eternal with God.^[46]

Philosophical objections[edit]

In the Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant argued against materialism in defending his transcendental idealism (as well as offering arguments against subjective idealism and mind–body dualism).^[47]^[48] However, Kant with his refutation of idealism, argues that change and time require an enduring substrate.^[49]^[50]Postmodern/poststructuralist thinkers also express a skepticism about any all-encompassing metaphysical scheme. Philosopher Mary Midgley argues that materialism is a self-refuting idea, at least in its eliminative materialist form.^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55]

Idealisms[edit]

Arguments for idealism, such as those of Hegel and Berkeley, often take the form of an argument against materialism; indeed, the idealism of Berkeley was called immaterialism. Now, matter can be argued to be redundant, as in bundle theory, and mind-independent properties can, in turn, be reduced to subjective percepts. Berkeley presents an example of the latter by pointing out that it is impossible to gather direct evidence of matter, as there is no direct experience of matter; all that is experienced is perception, whether internal or external. As such, the existence of matter can only be assumed from the apparent (perceived) stability of perceptions; it finds absolutely no evidence in direct experience.^{[citation needed]}

If matter and energy are seen as necessary to explain the physical world, but incapable of explaining mind, dualism results. Emergence, holism and process philosophy seek to ameliorate the perceived shortcomings of traditional (especially mechanistic) materialism without abandoning materialism entirely.^{[citation needed]}

Materialism as methodology[edit]

Some critics object to materialism as part of an overly skeptical, narrow or reductivist approach to theorizing, rather than to the ontological claim that matter is the only substance.Particle physicist and Anglican theologianJohn Polkinghorne objects to what he calls promissory materialism—claims that materialistic science will eventually succeed in explaining phenomena it has not so far been able to explain.^[56] Polkinghorne prefers 'dual-aspect monism' to materialism.^[57]

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Some scientific materialists have been criticized for failing to provide clear definitions for what constitutes matter, leaving the term 'materialism' without any definite meaning. Noam Chomsky states that since the concept of matter may be affected by new scientific discoveries, as has happened in the past, scientific materialists are being dogmatic in assuming the opposite.^[31]

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Antimaterialism beliefs:
Madhyamaka, a philosophy of middle way

Notes[edit]

a.^{^} Indeed, it has been noted it is difficult if not impossible to define one category without contrasting it with the other.^[2]^[3]

References[edit]

^Edwards, Paul, ed. (1972) [1967], The Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Vols.1-4, ISBN0-02-894950-1(Originally published 1967 in 8 volumes) Alternative ISBN978-0-02-894950-5
^ ^a^bPriest, Stephen (1991), Theories of the Mind, London: Penguin Books, ISBN0-14-013069-1 Alternative ISBN978-0-14-013069-0
^ ^a^b^cNovack, George (1979), The Origins of Materialism, New York: Pathfinder Press, ISBN0-87348-022-8
^Mary MidgleyThe Myths We Live By.
^Capital Vol. 1, Afterword to the Second German Edition.
^The Cambridge Companion to Atheism (2006), p. 228, at Google Books
^History of Indian Materialism, Ramakrishna Bhattacharya
^Dominique Urvoy, 'The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)', in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN90-04-09300-1.
^Thomas Hobbes (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
^Pierre Gassendi (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
^Axel Honneth, Hans Joas, Social Action and Human Nature, Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 18.
^Nicholas Churchich, Marxism and Alienation, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990, p. 57: 'Although Marx has rejected Feuerbach's abstract materialism,' Lenin says that Feuerbach's views 'are consistently materialist,' implying that Feuerbach's conception of causality is entirely in line with dialectical materialism.'
^See Georgi Plekhanov, 'For the Sixtieth Anniversary of Hegel's Death' (1891).
See also Plekhanov, Essays on the History of Materialism (1893) and Plekhanov, The Development of the Monist View of History (1895).
^Owen Chadwick, The Secularization of the European Mind in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 165: 'During the 1850s German .. scientists conducted a controversy known .. as the materialistic controversy. It was specially associated with the names of Vogt, Moleschott and Büchner' and p. 173: 'Frenchmen were surprised to see Büchner and Vogt. .. [T]he French were surprised at German materialism'.
^The Nineteenth Century and After, Vol. 151, 1952, p. 227: 'the Continental materialism of Moleschott and Buchner'.
^ ^a^bhttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/materialism-eliminative/#SpeProFolPsy, by William Ramsey
^Smith, Daniel; Protevi, John (1 January 2015). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Gilles Deleuze (Winter 2015 ed.).
^Dolphijn, Rick; Tuin, Iris van der (1 January 2013). 'New Materialism: Interviews & Cartographies'.Cite journal requires journal= (help)
^Bennett, Jane (4 January 2010). Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Duke University Press. ISBN9780822346333.
^'Animal: New Directions in the Theorization of Race and Posthumanism'. www.academia.edu. Retrieved 8 May 2016.
^Chen, Mel Y. (10 July 2012). Animacies: Biopolitics, Racial Mattering, and Queer Affect. Duke University Press. ISBN9780822352549.
^Schweitzer, M.; Zerdy, J. (14 August 2014). Performing Objects and Theatrical Things. Springer. ISBN9781137402455.
^Quentin Meillassoux (2008), After Finitude, Bloomsbury, p. 90.
^Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 'Matter' . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^'Hylomorphism'Concise Britannica
^'Atomism: Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century'Archived 9 September 2006 at the Wayback MachineDictionary of the History of Ideas
'Atomism in the Seventeenth Century'Dictionary of the History of Ideas
Article by a philosopher who opposes atomismArchived 21 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine
Information on Buddhist atomismArchived 16 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
Article on traditional Greek atomism
'Atomism from the 17th to the 20th Century'Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
^'''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy' on substance theory'. Plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
^'The Friesian School on Substance and Essence'. Friesian.com. Retrieved 24 June 2013.
^Bernard Sadoulet 'Particle Dark Matter in the Universe: At the Brink of Discovery?' Science 5 January 2007: Vol. 315. no. 5808, pp. 61 - 63
^'Many philosophers and scientists now use the terms `material' and `physical' interchangeably'Dictionary of the Philosophy of Mind
^ ^a^bChomsky, Noam (2000) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind
^stack, George J. (1998), 'Materialism', in Craig, E. (ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Luther to Nifo, Routledge, pp. 171–172, ISBN978-0-415-18714-5
^'Matter Undermined'. The Economic Times. 2 November 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
^'General Scientific and Popular Papers,' in Collected Papers, Vol. 4. Vienna: Austrian Academy of Sciences. Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden. p. 334
^W. Heisenberg (1962). Physics and philosophy: the revolution in modern science
^[1]
^'Quantum interactive dualism - an alternative to materialism,' Journal of Consciousness Studies
^[2]
^'Information, Physics, Quantum: The Search for Links' in Complexity, Entropy and the Physics of Information (1990), ed. by Wojciech H. Zurek
^James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe p. 137, 1937 ed.
^Gutberlet, Constantin (1911). 'Materialism' . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
^'Encyclopaedia Britannica: Soul Religion and Philosophy'.
^Lange, Friedrich Albert (1892). History of Materialism and Criticism of Its Present Importance. English and foreign philosophical library. 2: History of materialism until Kant (4 ed.). K. Paul, Trench, Trübner, & Company, Limited. pp. 25–26. Retrieved 21 June 2019. Diderot has not always in the Encyclopædia expressed his own individual opinion, but it is just as true that at its commencement he had not yet got as far as Atheism and Materialism.
^mahavidya.ca
^Doctrine and Covenants131:7–8
^Smith, Joseph (1938). Smith, Joseph Fielding (ed.). Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book. pp. 352–354. OCLC718055..
^See Critique of Pure Reason where he gives a 'refutation of idealism' in pp. 345–52 (1st Ed.) and pp. 244–7 (2nd Ed.) in the Norman Kemp Smith edition
^Critique of Pure Reason (A379, p. 352 NKS translation).'If, however, as commonly happens, we seek to extend the concept of dualism, and take it in the transcendental sense, neither it nor the two counter-alternatives — pneumatism [idealism] on the one hand, materialism on the other — would have any sort of basis [..] Neither the transcendental object which underlies outer appearances nor that which underlies inner intuition, is in itself either matter or a thinking being, but a ground (to us unknown)..'
^'Kant argues that we can determine that there has been a change in the objects of our perception, not merely a change in our perceptions themselves, only by conceiving of what we perceive as successive states of enduring substances (see Substance)'.Routledge Encyclopedia of PhilosophyArchived 6 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
^'All determination of time presupposes something permanent in perception. This permanent cannot, however, be something in me [..]' Critique of Pure Reason, B274, p. 245 (NKS translation)
^See Mary Midgley (1990), The Myths we Live By.
^Baker, L. (1987). Saving Belief Princeton, Princeton University Press
^Reppert, V. (1992). 'Eliminative Materialism, Cognitive Suicide, and Begging the Question'. Metaphilosophy 23: 378–92.
^Seidner, Stanley S. (10 June 2009) 'A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology'. Mater Dei Institute. p. 5.
^Boghossian, P. (1990). 'The Status of Content' Philosophical Review 99: 157–84. and (1991) 'The Status of Content Revisited'. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 71: 264–78.
^However, critics of materialism are equally guilty of prognosticating that it will never be able to explain certain phenomena. 'Over a hundred years ago William James saw clearly that science would never resolve the mind-body problem.' Are We Spiritual Machines? Dembski, W.
^'Interview with John Polkinghorne'. Crosscurrents.org. Retrieved 24 June 2013.

External links[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Materialism

Look up materialism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Materialism.

'Materialism' . Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911.
Stanford Encyclopedia:
Philosophical Materialism (by Richard C. Vitzthum) from infidels.org
Dictionary of the Philosophy of Mind on Materialism from the University of Waterloo

Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Materialism&oldid=913569683'

A

abduction (Igor Douven)
Abelard [Abailard], Peter (Peter King and Andrew Arlig)
Abhidharma (Noa Ronkin)
abilities (John Maier)
Abner of Burgos (Shalom Sadik)
Abrabanel, Judah (Aaron Hughes)
abstract objects (Gideon Rosen)
accidental properties — see essential vs. accidental properties
action (George Wilson and Samuel Shpall)
- joint — see agency: shared
- logic of — see logic: action
action-based theories of perception (Robert Briscoe and Rick Grush)
action at a distance — see quantum mechanics: action at a distance in
actualism (Christopher Menzel)
actualism and possibilism in ethics (Travis Timmerman and Yishai Cohen)
adaptationism (Steven Hecht Orzack and Patrick Forber)
Addams, Jane (Maurice Hamington)
Adorno, Theodor W. (Lambert Zuidervaart)
advance directives (Agnieszka Jaworska)
Aegidius Romanus — see Giles of Rome
Aenesidemus — see skepticism: ancient
aesthetic, concept of the (James Shelley)
aesthetics
- 19th Century Romantic (Keren Gorodeisky)
- aesthetic judgment (Nick Zangwill)
- Beardsley — see Beardsley, Monroe C.: aesthetics
- British, in the 18th century (James Shelley)
- Collingwood — see Collingwood, Robin George: aesthetics
- Croce — see Croce, Benedetto: aesthetics
- definition of art — see art, definition of
- Dewey — see Dewey, John: aesthetics
- environmental (Allen Carlson)
- existentialist (Jean-Philippe Deranty)
- feminist — see feminist philosophy, interventions: aesthetics
- French, in the 18th century (Jacques Morizot)
- Gadamer — see Gadamer, Hans-Georg: aesthetics
- German, in the 18th century (Paul Guyer)
- Goodman — see Goodman, Nelson: aesthetics
- Hegel — see Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: aesthetics
- Heidegger — see Heidegger, Martin: aesthetics
- Hume — see Hume, David: aesthetics
- Japanese — see Japanese Philosophy: aesthetics
- Plato — see Plato: aesthetics
- Schopenhauer — see Schopenhauer, Arthur: aesthetics
- Wittgenstein — see Wittgenstein, Ludwig: aesthetics
aesthetics of the everyday (Yuriko Saito)
affirmative action (Robert Fullinwider)
Africana Philosophy (Lucius T. Outlaw Jr.)
African Philosophy
- ethics (Kwame Gyekye)
- sage philosophy (Dismas Masolo)
afterlife (William Hasker and Charles Taliaferro)
agency (Markus Schlosser)
- shared (Abraham Sesshu Roth)
agent-relative vs. agent-neutral reasons — see reasons for action: agent-neutral vs. agent-relative
agnosticism — see atheism and agnosticism
Agrippa — see skepticism: ancient
Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius (Vittoria Perrone Compagni)
Akan Philosophy
- of the person (Ajume Wingo)
akrasia — see weakness of will
al-Baghdadi, ‘Abd al-Latif (Cecilia Martini Bonadeo)
Al-Farabi (Therese-Anne Druart)
- philosophy of logic and language (Wilfrid Hodges and Therese-Anne Druart)
- philosophy of society and religion (Nadja Germann)
- psychology and epistemology (Luis Xavier López-Farjeat)
Al-Ghazali (Frank Griffel)
Al-Kindi (Peter Adamson)
Albert of Saxony (Joél Biard)
Albert the Great [= Albertus magnus] (Markus Führer)
Albo, Joseph (Dror Ehrlich)
Alcmaeon (Carl Huffman)
Alexander, Samuel (Emily A. E. Thomas)
Alexander of Aphrodisias (Dorothea Frede)
algebra (Vaughan Pratt)
algebra of logic tradition (Stanley Burris and Javier Legris)
alienation (David Leopold)
Althusser, Louis (William Lewis)
altruism (Richard Kraut)
- biological (Samir Okasha)
Alyngton, Robert (Alessandro Conti)
ambiguity (Adam Sennet)
Ammonius (David Blank)
Ammonius Saccas — see Plotinus
analogy
- medieval theories of (E. Jennifer Ashworth)
analogy and analogical reasoning (Paul Bartha)
analysis (Michael Beaney)
analytic/synthetic distinction (Georges Rey)
anaphora (Jeffrey C. King and Karen S. Lewis)
anarchism (Andrew Fiala)
Anaxagoras (Patricia Curd)
Anaxarchus — see Pyrrho
Anderson, John (Creagh McLean Cole)
Andronicus of Rhodes — see Aristotle, commentators on
animal consciousness — see consciousness: animal
animalism (Stephan Blatti)
animals, moral status of (Lori Gruen)
anomalous monism (Steven Yalowitz)
Anscombe, Gertrude Elizabeth Margaret (Julia Driver)
Anselm, Saint [Anselm of Bec, Anselm of Canterbury] (Thomas Williams)
anti-realism, moral — see moral anti-realism
Antiochus of Ascalon (James Allen)
a posteriori knowledge — see a priori justification and knowledge
appearance vs. reality
- epistemological problems of perception — see perception: epistemological problems of
- skepticism — see skepticism
a priori justification and knowledge (Bruce Russell)
Aquinas, Saint Thomas (Ralph McInerny and John O'Callaghan)
- moral, political, and legal philosophy (John Finnis)
Arabic and Islamic Philosophy, disciplines in
- metaphysics (Amos Bertolacci)
- natural philosophy and natural science (Jon McGinnis)
- philosophy of language and logic (Tony Street)
- psychology and philosophy of mind (Alfred Ivry)
Arabic and Islamic Philosophy, historical and methodological topics in
- Greek sources (Cristina D'Ancona)
- influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on Judaic thought (Mauro Zonta)
- influence of Arabic and Islamic Philosophy on the Latin West (Dag Nikolaus Hasse)
Arabic and Islamic Philosophy, special topics in
- Ibn Kammuna — see Ibn Kammuna
- Ikhwân al-Safâ’ — see Ikhwân al-Safâ’
- mysticism (Mehdi Aminrazavi)
Arcesilaus (Charles Brittain)
architecture, philosophy of (Saul Fisher)
Archytas (Carl Huffman)
Arendt, Hannah (Maurizio Passerin d'Entreves)
arete — see ethics: ancient
arguments for probabilism
- epistemic utility — see epistemic utility arguments for probabilism
Aristotelianism
- commentators on Aristotle — see Aristotle, commentators on
- in the Renaissance (Heinrich Kuhn)
Aristotle (Christopher Shields)
Aristotle, commentators on (Andrea Falcon)
- Alexander of Aphrosias — see Alexander of Aphrodisias
- Ammonius — see Ammonius
- David — see David
- Elias — see Elias
- Olympiodorus — see Olympiodorus
- Philoponus — see Philoponus
Aristotle, General Topics
- biology (James Lennox)
- categories (Paul Studtmann)
- ethics (Richard Kraut)
- logic (Robin Smith)
- metaphysics (S. Marc Cohen)
- political theory (Fred Miller)
- psychology (Christopher Shields)
- rhetoric (Christof Rapp)
Aristotle, Special Topics
- causality (Andrea Falcon)
- mathematics (Henry Mendell)
- natural philosophy (Istvan Bodnar)
- on non-contradiction (Paula Gottlieb)
Arnauld, Antoine (Elmar Kremer)
Arouet, François-Marie — see Voltaire
Arrow’s theorem (Michael Morreau)
art
- erotic (Hans Maes)
art, conceptual (Elisabeth Schellekens)
art, definition of (Thomas Adajian)
artifact (Beth Preston)
artificial intelligence (Selmer Bringsjord and Naveen Sundar Govindarajulu)
- automated reasoning — see reasoning: automated
- belief representation — see belief, formal representations of
- Chinese room argument — see Chinese room argument
- connectionism — see connectionism
- defeasible reasoning — see reasoning: defeasible
- frame problem — see frame problem
- logic and (Richmond Thomason)
- Turing test — see Turing test
aspect — see tense and aspect
assertion (Peter Pagin)
associationist theories of thought (Eric Mandelbaum)
Astell, Mary (Alice Sowaal)
atheism and agnosticism (Paul Draper)
atomism
- 17th to 20th century (Alan Chalmers)
- ancient (Sylvia Berryman)
attention (Christopher Mole)
attributes — see properties
auditory perception — see perception: auditory
Augustine, Saint (Michael Mendelson)
Auriol [Aureol, Aureoli], Peter (Russell L. Friedman)
Austin, John (Brian Bix)
Austin, John Langshaw (Guy Longworth)
authenticity (Somogy Varga and Charles Guignon)
authority (Tom Christiano)
- legal — see legal obligation and authority
automated reasoning — see reasoning: automated
autonomy
- and informed consent — see informed consent
- in moral and political philosophy (John Christman)
- personal (Sarah Buss and Andrea Westlund)
Averroes
- natural philosophy — see Ibn Rushd: natural philosophy
Avicebron — see Ibn Gabirol, Solomon
Avicenna — see Ibn Sina
- logic — see Ibn Sina: logic
- metaphysics — see Ibn Sina: metaphysics
- natural philosophy — see Ibn Sina: natural philosophy
awareness, bodily — see bodily awareness
Ayer, Alfred Jules (Graham Macdonald and Nakul Krishna)

B [jump to top]

Bacon, Francis (Jürgen Klein)
Bacon, Roger (Jeremiah Hackett)
Bain, Alexander — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 19th century
basing relation, epistemic (Keith Allen Korcz)
Baudrillard, Jean (Douglas Kellner)
Bauer, Bruno (Douglas Moggach)
Bayes’ Theorem (James Joyce)
Bayle, Pierre (Thomas M. Lennon and Michael Hickson)
Beardsley, Monroe C.
- aesthetics (Michael Wreen)
Beattie, James — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
beauty (Crispin Sartwell)
Beauvoir, Simone de (Debra Bergoffen)
behaviorism (George Graham)
being — see existence
being and becoming — see time
- in modern physics — see space and time: being and becoming in modern physics
belief (Eric Schwitzgebel)
belief, ethics of (Andrew Chignell)
belief, formal representations of (Franz Huber)
belief merging and judgment aggregation (Gabriella Pigozzi)
Bell’s Theorem (Wayne Myrvold, Marco Genovese, and Abner Shimony)
beneficence, principle of (Tom Beauchamp)
Benjamin, Walter (Peter Osborne and Matthew Charles)
Bentham, Jeremy (James E. Crimmins)
Bergson, Henri (Leonard Lawlor and Valentine Moulard Leonard)
Berkeley, George (Lisa Downing)
Berlin, Isaiah (Joshua Cherniss and Henry Hardy)
Bessarion, Basil [Cardinal] (Eva Del Soldato)
bias, implicit (Michael Brownstein)
binarium famosissimum [= most famous pair] (Paul Vincent Spade)
biodiversity — see ecology: biodiversity
biological individuals (Robert A. Wilson and Matthew J. Barker)
biological information — see information: biological
biology
- conservation — see conservation biology
- developmental — see developmental biology
- experiment in (Marcel Weber)
- molecular — see molecular biology
- philosophy of (Paul Griffiths)
- reduction in — see reduction, scientific: in biology
- systems and synthetic — see systems and synthetic biology
- teleological notions in — see teleology: teleological notions in biology
biology, philosophy of
- feminist — see feminist philosophy, interventions: philosophy of biology
Blair, Hugh — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
blame (Neal Tognazzini and D. Justin Coates)
bodily awareness (Frédérique de Vignemont)
Bodin, Jean (Mario Turchetti)
body — see substance
Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus (John Marenbon)
Bohr, Niels
- correspondence principle (Alisa Bokulich)
Bolzano, Bernard (Edgar Morscher)
- logic (Jan Šebestik)
Bonaventure, Saint (Tim Noone and R. E. Houser)
Boole, George (Stanley Burris)
Boolean algebra
- the mathematics of (J. Donald Monk)
Bosanquet, Bernard (William Sweet)
boundary (Achille Varzi)
bounded rationality (Gregory Wheeler)
Boyle, Robert (J. J. MacIntosh and Peter Anstey)
Bradley, Francis Herbert (Stewart Candlish and Pierfrancesco Basile)
- moral and political philosophy (David Crossley)
- Regress (Katarina Perovic)
brain death — see death: definition of
brains in a vat — see skepticism: and content externalism
Brentano, Franz (Wolfgang Huemer)
- theory of judgement (Johannes L. Brandl and Mark Textor)
Broad, Charlie Dunbar (Kent Gustavsson)
Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan (Mark van Atten)
Brown, Thomas — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 19th century
Bruno, Giordano (Dilwyn Knox)
Buber, Martin (Michael Zank and Zachary Braiterman)
Buddha (Mark Siderits)
Buddhism
- Chan — see Chinese Philosophy: Chan Buddhism
- ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism — see ethics: in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism
- mind in Indian Buddhist Philosophy — see mind: in Indian Buddhist Philosophy
- Tiantai — see Chinese Philosophy: Tiantai Buddhism
- Zen — see Japanese Philosophy: Zen Buddhism
bundle theory — see substance
Buridan, John [Jean] (Jack Zupko)
Burke, Edmund (Ian Harris)
Burley [Burleigh], Walter (Alessandro Conti)
Burnet, James [Lord Monboddo] — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Butler, Joseph
- moral philosophy (Aaron Garrett)
Byzantine Philosophy (Katerina Ierodiakonou and Börje Bydén)

C [jump to top]

Caird, Edward — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 19th century
Callicles — see Plato: Callicles and Thrasymachus
Cambridge Platonists (Sarah Hutton)
Campanella, Tommaso (Germana Ernst)
Campbell, George — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Camus, Albert (Ronald Aronson)
cancer (Anya Plutynski)
capability approach (Ingrid Robeyns)
Cardano, Girolamo [Geronimo] (Guido Giglioni)
Carmichael, Gershom — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Carneades (James Allen)
Cassirer, Ernst (Michael Friedman)
casuistry — see reasoning: moral
categories (Amie Thomasson)
- medieval theories of (Jorge Gracia and Lloyd Newton)
category mistakes (Ofra Magidor)
category theory (Jean-Pierre Marquis)
causal determinism — see determinism: causal
causal models (Christopher Hitchcock)
causation
- backward (Jan Faye)
- counterfactual theories of (Peter Menzies)
- in Arabic and Islamic thought (Kara Richardson)
- in the law (Antony Honoré and John Gardner)
- and manipulability (James Woodward)
- medieval theories of (Graham White)
- mental — see mental causation
- the metaphysics of (Jonathan Schaffer)
- probabilistic (Christopher Hitchcock)
- retrocausality in quantum mechanics — see quantum mechanics: retrocausality
Cavendish, Margaret Lucas (David Cunning)
cellular automata (Francesco Berto and Jacopo Tagliabue)
censorship — see pornography: and censorship
certainty (Baron Reed)
ceteris paribus laws — see laws of nature: ceteris paribus
chance
- versus randomness (Antony Eagle)
change
- and inconsistency (Chris Mortensen)
change: Chinese philosophy of — see Chinese Philosophy: philosophy of change
chaos (Robert Bishop)
character, moral (Marcia Homiak)
- empirical approaches (Christian B. Miller)
Châtelet, Émilie du (Karen Detlefsen)
Chatton, Walter (Rondo Keele and Jenny Pelletier)
chemistry, philosophy of (Michael Weisberg, Paul Needham, and Robin Hendry)
childhood, the philosophy of (Gareth Matthews and Amy Mullin)
children, philosophy for (Michael Pritchard)
Chile
- philosophy in (Ivan Jaksic)
chimeras, human/non-human — see ethics, biomedical: chimeras, human/non-human
Chinese ethics — see Chinese Philosophy: ethics
Chinese Philosophy
- Chan Buddhism (Peter Hershock)
- Chinese medicine (Lisa Raphals)
- Confucius — see Confucius
- Daoism (Taoism) — see Daoism
- epistemology (Jana Rošker)
- ethics (David Wong)
- Laozi — see Laozi
- legalism in (Yuri Pines)
- logic and language in Early Chinese Philosophy (Marshall Willman)
- Mencius — see Mencius
- metaphysics (Franklin Perkins)
- Mohism (Chris Fraser)
- Mohist Canons (Chris Fraser)
- Neo-Daoism — see Neo-Daoism
- philosophy of change (Tze-Ki Hon)
- Qing philosophy (On-cho Ng)
- science (Lisa Raphals)
- social and political thought (Stephen C. Angle)
- Tiantai Buddhism (Brook Ziporyn)
- translating and interpreting (Henry Rosemont Jr.)
- Wang Yangming — see Wang Yangming
- Zhuang Zi — see Zhuangzi
- Zhu Xi — see Zhu Xi
Chinese room argument (David Cole)
Chisholm, Roderick (Richard Feldman and Fred Feldman)
choice, axiom of (John L. Bell)
choice, dynamic (Chrisoula Andreou)
choice, social — see social choice theory
Christian theology, philosophy and (Michael J. Murray and Michael Rea)
Church-Turing Thesis (B. Jack Copeland)
Church’s Thesis — see Church-Turing Thesis
citizenship (Dominique Leydet)
civic education (Jack Crittenden and Peter Levine)
civic humanism (Cary Nederman)
civil disobedience (Kimberley Brownlee)
civil rights (Andrew Altman)
Clarke, Samuel (Timothy Yenter and Ezio Vailati)
Clement of Alexandria — see doxography of ancient philosophy
climate science (Wendy Parker)
clinical research, ethics of — see ethics, biomedical: clinical research
cloning (Katrien Devolder)
Cockburn, Catharine Trotter (Patricia Sheridan)
coercion (Scott Anderson)
cognition
- embodied (Robert A. Wilson and Lucia Foglia)
cognition, animal (Kristin Andrews)
cognitive disability and moral status (David Wasserman, Adrienne Asch, Jeffrey Blustein, and Daniel Putnam)
cognitive science (Paul Thagard)
cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral (Mark van Roojen)
Cohen, Hermann (Scott Edgar)
Collingwood, Robin George (Giuseppina D'Oro and James Connelly)
- aesthetics (Gary Kemp)
Collins, Anthony (William Uzgalis)
colonialism (Margaret Kohn and Kavita Reddy)
color (Barry Maund)
common good (Waheed Hussain)
common knowledge (Peter Vanderschraaf and Giacomo Sillari)
communitarianism (Daniel Bell)
comparative philosophy
- Chinese and Western (David Wong)
compatibilism (Michael McKenna and D. Justin Coates)
competence, in biomedical decision-making — see decision-making capacity
complexity
- computability and — see computability and complexity
- computational — see computational complexity theory
composition, the vagueness of — see many, problem of
compositionality (Zoltán Gendler Szabó)
computability and complexity (Neil Immerman)
computation
- in physical systems (Gualtiero Piccinini)
computational complexity theory (Walter Dean)
computational linguistics — see linguistics: computational
computational theory of mind — see mind: computational theory of
computer and information ethics (Terrell Bynum)
computer science, philosophy of (Raymond Turner, Nicola Angius, and Giuseppe Primiero)
computing
- modern history of (B. Jack Copeland)
- and moral responsibility (Merel Noorman)
Comte, Auguste (Michel Bourdeau)
concepts (Eric Margolis and Stephen Laurence)
condemnation of 1277 (Hans Thijssen)
Condillac, Étienne Bonnot de (Lorne Falkenstein and Giovanni Grandi)
conditionals (Dorothy Edgington)
- counterfactual (William Starr)
- logic of — see logic: conditionals
Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis de
- in the history of feminism (Joan Landes)
confirmation (Vincenzo Crupi)
Confucianism
- Japanese — see Japanese Philosophy: Confucian
- Mencius — see Mencius
- Wang Yangming — see Wang Yangming
- Xunzi — see Xunzi
- Zhu Xi — see Zhu Xi
Confucius (Jeffrey Riegel)
connectionism (Cameron Buckner and James Garson)
connectives
- sentence connectives in formal logic (Lloyd Humberstone)
conscience (Alberto Giubilini)
- medieval theories of (Douglas Langston)
consciousness (Robert Van Gulick)
- animal (Colin Allen and Michael Trestman)
- higher-order theories (Peter Carruthers)
- and intentionality (Charles Siewert)
- neuroscience of (Wayne Wu)
- representational theories of (William Lycan)
- seventeenth-century theories of (Larry M. Jorgensen)
- temporal (Barry Dainton)
- unity of (Andrew Brook and Paul Raymont)
consent — see political obligation
consequence, medieval theories of (Catarina Dutilh Novaes)
consequentialism (Walter Sinnott-Armstrong)
- rule (Brad Hooker)
conservation biology (Jay Odenbaugh)
conservatism (Andy Hamilton)
constitutionalism (Wil Waluchow)
constructive empiricism (Bradley Monton and Chad Mohler)
constructivism
- in metaethics (Carla Bagnoli)
contextualism, epistemic (Patrick Rysiew)
Continental Rationalism (Shannon Dea, Julie Walsh, and Thomas M. Lennon)
continuity and infinitesimals (John L. Bell)
continuum hypothesis — see set theory: continuum hypothesis
contractarianism (Ann Cudd and Seena Eftekhari)
contracts, theories of the common law of (Daniel Markovits)
contractualism (Elizabeth Ashford and Tim Mulgan)
contradiction (Laurence R. Horn)
convention (Michael Rescorla)
Conway, Lady Anne (Sarah Hutton)
Cooper, Anna Julia (Kathryn T. Gines)
Copernicus, Nicolaus (Sheila Rabin)
Cordemoy, Géraud de (Fred Ablondi)
corruption (Seumas Miller)
cosmological argument (Bruce Reichenbach)
cosmology
- methodological debates in the 1930s and 1940s (George Gale)
- and theology (Hans Halvorson and Helge Kragh)
cosmology, philosophy of (Christopher Smeenk and George Ellis)
cosmopolitanism (Pauline Kleingeld and Eric Brown)
counterfactuals — see conditionals: counterfactual
counterpart theory — see possible objects
Crathorn, William (Aurélien Robert)
creation and conservation (David Vander Laan)
creationism (Michael Ruse)
Crescas, Hasdai (Shalom Sadik)
criminal law, theories of (James Edwards)
critical theory (James Bohman)
critical thinking (David Hitchcock)
Croce, Benedetto
- aesthetics (Gary Kemp)
Crummell, Alexander (Stephen Thompson)
Cudworth, Ralph — see Cambridge Platonists
cultural evolution — see evolution: cultural
cultural heritage, ethics of (Erich Hatala Matthes)
culture
- and cognitive science (Jesse Prinz)
Culverwell, Nathaniel — see Cambridge Platonists
Curry’s paradox (Lionel Shapiro and Jc Beall)
Cusanus, Nicolaus [Nicolas of Cusa] (Clyde Lee Miller)

D [jump to top]

Damian, Peter (Toivo J. Holopainen)
dance, philosophy of (Aili Bresnahan)
Dante Alighieri (Winthrop Wetherbee and Jason Aleksander)
Daoism (Chad Hansen)
- Laozi — see Laozi
- Neo-Daoism — see Neo-Daoism
- religious (Fabrizio Pregadio)
- Zhuang Zi — see Zhuangzi
Darwin, Charles
- from Origin of Species to Descent of Man — see evolution: from Origin of Species to the Descent of Man
Darwinism (James Lennox)
Dasein — see Heidegger, Martin
Daud, Abraham Ibn — see Ibn Daud, Abraham
David (Christian Wildberg)
Davidson, Donald (Jeff Malpas)
death (Steven Luper)
- definition of (David DeGrazia)
de Beauvoir, Simone — see Beauvoir, Simone de
deception
- definition of — see lying and deception: definition of
- self — see self-deception
decision-making capacity (Louis C. Charland)
decision theory (Katie Steele and H. Orri Stefánsson)
- causal (Paul Weirich)
- descriptive (Jake Chandler)
- expected utility theories of rational choice — see rational choice, normative: expected utility
Dedekind, Richard
- contributions to the foundations of mathematics (Erich Reck)
defaults in semantics and pragmatics (Katarzyna M. Jaszczolt)
definitions (Anil Gupta)
Deleuze, Gilles (Daniel Smith and John Protevi)
Delmedigo, Elijah (Michael Engel)
delusion (Lisa Bortolotti)
demarcation of science — see science: and pseudo-science
democracy (Tom Christiano)
- global (Jonathan Kuyper)
Democritus (Sylvia Berryman)
demonstration
- Aristotle’s theory of — see Aristotle, General Topics: logic
- medieval theories of (John Longeway)
demonstratives — see indexicals
denotation — see reference
deontological ethics — see ethics: deontological
dependence, ontological (Tuomas E. Tahko and E. Jonathan Lowe)
depiction (John Hyman and Katerina Bantinaki)
Derrida, Jacques (Leonard Lawlor)
Descartes, René (Gary Hatfield)
- epistemology (Lex Newman)
- ethics (Donald Rutherford)
- life and works (Kurt Smith)
- mathematics (Mary Domski)
- modal metaphysics (David Cunning)
- ontological argument (Lawrence Nolan)
- physics (Edward Slowik)
- and the pineal gland (Gert-Jan Lokhorst)
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
- theory of ideas (Kurt Smith)
descriptions (Peter Ludlow)
desert (Fred Feldman and Brad Skow)
Desgabets, Robert (Patricia Easton)
design, argument from — see teleology: teleological arguments for God’s existence
desire (Tim Schroeder)
determinates vs. determinables (Jessica Wilson)
determinism
- causal (Carl Hoefer)
developmental biology (Alan Love)
- epigenesis and preformationism (Jane Maienschein)
Dewey, John (David Hildebrand)
- aesthetics (Tom Leddy)
- moral philosophy (Elizabeth Anderson)
- political philosophy (Matthew Festenstein)
Dharmakīrti (Tom Tillemans)
diagrams (Sun-Joo Shin, Oliver Lemon, and John Mumma)
- epistemology of — see visual thinking in mathematics: epistemology of
Dialectical School (Susanne Bobzien)
dialectics, Hegel’s — see Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: dialectics
dialetheism (Graham Priest, Francesco Berto, and Zach Weber)
Diderot, Denis (Charles T. Wolfe and J.B. Shank)
Dietrich of Freiberg (Markus Führer)
digital art, philosophy of (Katherine Thomson-Jones and Shelby Moser)
Dilthey, Wilhelm (Rudolf Makkreel)
Diodorus Cronus (David Sedley)
Diogenes Laertius — see doxography of ancient philosophy
Dionysius the Areopagite — see Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
dirty hands, the problem of (C.A.J. Coady)
disability
- definitions, models, experience (David Wasserman, Adrienne Asch, Jeffrey Blustein, and Daniel Putnam)
- feminist perspectives on — see feminist philosophy, topics: perspectives on disability
- health, well-being, personal relationships (David Wasserman, Adrienne Asch, Jeffrey Blustein, and Daniel Putnam)
- and health care rationing (Jerome Bickenbach)
- and justice (Daniel Putnam, David Wasserman, Jeffrey Blustein, and Adrienne Asch)
disagreement (Bryan Frances and Jonathan Matheson)
discourse representation theory (Bart Geurts, David I. Beaver, and Emar Maier)
discrimination (Andrew Altman)
disease — see health
disjunction (Maria Aloni)
dispositions (Sungho Choi and Michael Fara)
Dissoi Logoi — see Sophists, The
distributive justice — see justice: distributive
- and empirical moral psychology (Christian B. Miller)
- international — see justice: international distributive
diversity
- religious — see religious diversity
divine
- command theory — see voluntarism, theological
- concepts of the — see God: concepts of
- foreknowledge and free will — see free will: divine foreknowledge and
- freedom — see freedom: divine
- hiddenness — see hiddenness of God
- illumination (Robert Pasnau)
- providence — see providence, divine
- simplicity — see simplicity: divine
doing vs. allowing harm (Fiona Woollard and Frances Howard-Snyder)
domestic partnership and marriage — see marriage and domestic partnership
domination (Christopher McCammon)
donation and sale of human eggs and sperm (Reuven Brandt, Stephen Wilkinson, and Nicola Williams)
donation of human organs (Martin Wilkinson and Stephen Wilkinson)
double consciousness (John P. Pittman)
double effect, doctrine of (Alison McIntyre)
Douglass, Frederick (Ronald Sundstrom)
doxography of ancient philosophy (Jaap Mansfeld)
dreams and dreaming (Jennifer M. Windt)
dualism (Howard Robinson)
Du Bois, W.E.B. (Robert Gooding-Williams)
Duhem, Pierre (Roger Ariew)
Dunbar, James — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Duns Scotus, John (Thomas Williams)
Dutch book arguments (Susan Vineberg)
dynamic epistemic logic — see logic: dynamic epistemic
dynamic semantics — see semantics: dynamic

E [jump to top]

Early Modern India, analytic philosophy in (Jonardon Ganeri)
Eckhart, Meister — see Meister Eckhart
ecology (Sahotra Sarkar)
- biodiversity (Daniel P. Faith)
- conservation biology — see conservation biology
economics
- Ramsey and intergenerational welfare economics — see Ramsey, Frank: and intergenerational welfare economics
economics, philosophy of (Daniel M. Hausman)
economics and economic justice (Marc Fleurbaey)
education, philosophy of (Harvey Siegel, D.C. Phillips, and Eamonn Callan)
Edwards, Jonathan (William Wainwright)
egalitarianism (Richard Arneson)
egoism (Robert Shaver)
Ehrenfels, Christian von (Robin Rollinger and Carlo Ierna)
Einstein, Albert
- the hole argument — see space and time: the hole argument
- philosophy of science (Don A. Howard)
Elias (Christian Wildberg)
Elisabeth, Princess of Bohemia (Lisa Shapiro)
emergent properties (Timothy O'Connor and Hong Yu Wong)
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (Russell Goodman)
emotion (Andrea Scarantino and Ronald de Sousa)
- 17th and 18th century theories of (Amy M. Schmitter)
- in the Christian tradition (Robert Roberts)
- medieval theories of (Simo Knuuttila)
empathy (Karsten Stueber)
Empedocles (Richard Parry)
empirical approaches
- character, moral — see character, moral: empirical approaches
empiricism — see rationalism vs. empiricism
- ancient and medieval (Gregory W. Dawes)
- constructive — see constructive empiricism
- logical (Richard Creath)
Enlightenment (William Bristow)
entailment — see logical consequence
entropy
- and information processing — see information processing: and thermodynamic entropy
envy (Justin D'Arms)
Epictetus (Margaret Graver)
Epicurus (David Konstan)
epiphenomenalism (William Robinson)
episteme and techne [= scientific knowledge and expertise] (Richard Parry)
epistemic basing relation — see basing relation, epistemic
epistemic closure (Steven Luper)
epistemic paradoxes (Roy Sorensen)
epistemic self-doubt — see self-doubt, epistemic
epistemic utility arguments for probabilism (Richard Pettigrew)
epistemology (Matthias Steup)
- Bayesian (William Talbott)
- contextualism in — see contextualism, epistemic
- evolutionary (Michael Bradie and William Harms)
- feminist — see feminist philosophy, interventions: epistemology and philosophy of science
- in classical Indian philosophy — see Indian Philosophy (Classical): epistemology
- in Latin America (Diego Machuca)
- moral — see moral epistemology
- moral, a priorism in — see moral epistemology: a priorism in
- naturalism in (Patrick Rysiew)
- reliabilist — see reliabilist epistemology
- social (Alvin Goldman and Cailin O'Connor)
- social feminist — see feminist philosophy, interventions: social epistemology
- virtue (John Turri, Mark Alfano, and John Greco)
epistemology, formal (Jonathan Weisberg)
epsilon calculus (Jeremy Avigad and Richard Zach)
equality (Stefan Gosepath)
- of educational opportunity (Liam Shields, Anne Newman, and Debra Satz)
- of opportunity (Richard Arneson)
equivalence of mass and energy (Francisco Fernflores)
Erasmus, Desiderius (Erika Rummel)
ergodic hierarchy (Roman Frigg, Joseph Berkovitz, and Fred Kronz)
Eriugena, John Scottus (Dermot Moran)
essence, real — see Locke, John: on real essence
essentialism — see essential vs. accidental properties
essential vs. accidental properties (Teresa Robertson and Philip Atkins)
eternity, in Christian thought (Natalja Deng)
ethics
- actualism and possibilism — see actualism and possibilism in ethics
- ancient (Richard Parry)
- of belief — see belief, ethics of
- business (Jeffrey Moriarty)
- Chinese — see Chinese Philosophy: ethics
- computer and information — see computer and information ethics
- deontological (Larry Alexander and Michael Moore)
- environmental (Andrew Brennan and Yeuk-Sze Lo)
- feminist — see feminist philosophy, interventions: ethics
- in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism (Charles Goodman)
- internet research (Elizabeth A. Buchanan and Michael Zimmer)
- natural law tradition (Mark Murphy)
- and personal identity — see personal identity: and ethics
- search engines and (Herman Tavani)
- and social networking — see social networking and ethics
- thick concepts — see thick ethical concepts
- utilitarian — see consequentialism
- virtue (Rosalind Hursthouse and Glen Pettigrove)
ethics, African — see African Philosophy: ethics
ethics, applied
- phenomenological approaches to ethics and information technology — see information technology: phenomenological approaches to ethics and
ethics, biomedical
- advance directives and substitute decision-making — see advance directives
- chimeras, human/non-human (Robert Streiffer)
- clinical research (David Wendler)
- cloning — see cloning
- decision-making capacity — see decision-making capacity
- disability — see disability: definitions, models, experience
- disease and health, concepts of — see health
- the donation and sale of human eggs and sperm — see donation and sale of human eggs and sperm
- the donation of human organs — see donation of human organs
- human enhancement — see human enhancement
- informed consent — see informed consent
- justice, inequality, and health (Gopal Sreenivasan)
- justice and access to health care (Norman Daniels)
- pregnancy, birth, and medicine — see pregnancy, birth, and medicine
- privacy and medicine (Anita Allen)
- public health ethics — see public health: ethics
- the sale of human organs — see sale of human organs
- stem cell research (Andrew Siegel)
- theory (John Arras)
eudaimonia — see ethics: ancient
eugenics (Sara Goering)
euthanasia
- voluntary (Robert Young)
events (Roberto Casati and Achille Varzi)
evidence (Thomas Kelly)
- the legal concept of (Hock Lai Ho)
- scientific — see confirmation
evil
- concept of (Todd Calder)
- problem of (Michael Tooley)
evolution (Roberta L. Millstein)
- concept before Darwin (Phillip Sloan)
- cultural (Tim Lewens)
- from Origin of Species to the Descent of Man (Phillip Sloan)
evolutionary ethics — see morality: and evolutionary biology
evolutionary game theory — see game theory: evolutionary
evolutionary psychology — see psychology: evolutionary
existence (Michael Nelson)
existentialism (Steven Crowell)
- aesthetics — see aesthetics: existentialist
experimental moral philosophy (Mark Alfano, Don Loeb, and Alexandra Plakias)
experimental philosophy (Joshua Knobe and Shaun Nichols)
experimentation
- in biology — see biology: experiment in
- in physics — see physics: experiment in
explanation
- in mathematics — see mathematics: explanation in
- scientific — see scientific explanation
exploitation (Matt Zwolinski and Alan Wertheimer)
externalism
- and self-knowledge (T. Parent)
extrinsic — see intrinsic vs. extrinsic properties
Ezra, Abraham Ibn — see Ibn Ezra, Abraham

F [jump to top]

facts (Kevin Mulligan and Fabrice Correia)
faith (John Bishop)
Falaquera, Shem Tov Ibn (Steve Harvey)
fallacies (Hans Hansen)
Fanon, Frantz (John Drabinski)
fatalism (Hugh Rice)
federalism (Andreas Follesdal)
Feigl, Herbert (Matthias Neuber)
Fell, Margaret (Jacqueline Broad)
feminist philosophy (Noëlle McAfee)
- Latin American (Stephanie Rivera Berruz)
feminist philosophy, approaches
- analytic philosophy (Ann Garry)
- continental philosophy (Jennifer Hansen)
- intersections between analytic and continental philosophy (Georgia Warnke)
- intersections between pragmatist and continental philosophy (Shannon Sullivan)
- pragmatism (Judy Whipps and Danielle Lake)
- psychoanalytic philosophy (Emily Zakin)
feminist philosophy, interventions
- aesthetics (Carolyn Korsmeyer)
- bioethics (Anne Donchin and Jackie Scully)
- environmental philosophy (Karen J. Warren)
- epistemology and philosophy of science (Elizabeth Anderson)
- ethics (Kathryn Norlock)
- history of philosophy (Charlotte Witt and Lisa Shapiro)
- liberal feminism (Amy R. Baehr)
- metaphysics (Sally Haslanger and Ásta)
- moral psychology (Anita Superson)
- philosophy of biology (Carla Fehr)
- philosophy of language (Jennifer Saul and Esa Diaz-Leon)
- philosophy of law (Leslie Francis and Patricia Smith)
- philosophy of religion (Nancy Frankenberry)
- political philosophy (Noëlle McAfee and Katie B. Howard)
- social epistemology (Heidi Grasswick)
feminist philosophy, topics
- perspectives on autonomy (Natalie Stoljar)
- perspectives on class and work (Ann Ferguson, Rosemary Hennessy, and Mechthild Nagel)
- perspectives on disability (Anita Silvers)
- perspectives on globalization (Serena Parekh and Shelley Wilcox)
- perspectives on objectification (Evangelia (Lina) Papadaki)
- perspectives on power (Amy Allen)
- perspectives on rape (Rebecca Whisnant)
- perspectives on reproduction and the family (Debra Satz)
- perspectives on science (Sharon Crasnow, Alison Wylie, Wenda K. Bauchspies, and Elizabeth Potter)
- perspectives on sex and gender (Mari Mikkola)
- perspectives on sex markets (Laurie Shrage)
- perspectives on the body (Kathleen Lennon)
- perspectives on the self (Cynthia Willett, Ellen Anderson, and Diana Meyers)
- perspectives on trans issues (Talia Bettcher)
Ferguson, Adam — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Ferrier, James — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 19th century
Feuerbach, Ludwig Andreas (Todd Gooch)
Feyerabend, Paul (John Preston)
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (Dan Breazeale)
Ficino, Marsilio (Christopher S. Celenza)
fictional entities (Fred Kroon and Alberto Voltolini)
fictionalism (Matti Eklund)
- in the philosophy of mathematics — see mathematics, philosophy of: fictionalism
- modal (Daniel Nolan)
fideism (Richard Amesbury)
film, philosophy of (Thomas Wartenberg)
finance, philosophy of money and — see money and finance, philosophy of
Findlay, J.N. (Douglas Lackey)
fine-tuning (Simon Friederich)
Fitch’s paradox of knowability (Berit Brogaard and Joe Salerno)
fitness (Alexander Rosenberg and Frederic Bouchard)
fitting attitude theories of value (Daniel Jacobson)
FitzRalph, Richard (Michael W. Dunne)
Fleck, Ludwik (Wojciech Sady)
folk psychology
- as mental simulation (Luca Barlassina and Robert M. Gordon)
- as a theory (Ian Ravenscroft)
Foot, Philippa (John Hacker-Wright)
foreknowledge, divine — see free will: divine foreknowledge and
forgiveness (Paul M. Hughes and Brandon Warmke)
formal epistemology — see epistemology, formal
formalism
- in the philosophy of mathematics — see mathematics, philosophy of: formalism
formal representations of belief — see belief, formal representations of
Forms [Platonic] — see Plato: middle period metaphysics and epistemology
form vs. matter (Thomas Ainsworth)
Foucault, Michel (Gary Gutting and Johanna Oksala)
four dimensionalism — see temporal parts
frame problem (Murray Shanahan)
Francis of Marchia (Christopher Schabel)
Frankfurt School — see critical theory
freedom
- of association (Kimberley Brownlee and David Jenkins)
- divine (William Rowe)
- positive and negative — see liberty: positive and negative
- of speech (David van Mill)
free rider problem (Russell Hardin)
free will (Timothy O'Connor and Christopher Franklin)
- (nondeterministic) theories of — see incompatibilism: (nondeterministic) theories of free will
- divine foreknowledge and (Linda Zagzebski)
Frege, Gottlob (Edward N. Zalta)
- controversy with Hilbert (Patricia Blanchette)
- theorem and foundations for arithmetic (Edward N. Zalta)
friendship (Bennett Helm)
function
- in biology — see teleology: teleological notions in biology
- propositional — see propositional function
- recursive — see recursive functions
functionalism (Janet Levin)
fundamentality (Tuomas E. Tahko)
future contingents (Peter Øhrstrøm and Per Hasle)
- medieval theories of (Simo Knuuttila)

G [jump to top]

Gadamer, Hans-Georg (Jeff Malpas)
- aesthetics (Nicholas Davey)
Galen (P. N. Singer)
Galileo Galilei (Peter Machamer)
games
- abstraction and completeness (Felice Cardone)
- logic and — see logic: and games
- logics for analyzing — see logic: for analyzing games
game theory (Don Ross)
- epistemic foundations of (Eric Pacuit and Olivier Roy)
- and ethics (Bruno Verbeek and Christopher Morris)
- evolutionary (J. McKenzie Alexander)
Gassendi, Pierre (Saul Fisher)
Gelukpa [dge lugs pa] (Douglas Duckworth)
gene (Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, Staffan Müller-Wille, and Robert Meunier)
generalized quantifiers (Dag Westerståhl)
general relativity
- early philosophical interpretations of (Thomas A. Ryckman)
generic generalizations (Sarah-Jane Leslie and Adam Lerner)
genetic drift (Roberta L. Millstein)
genetics (James Tabery)
- evolutionary (Michael Wade)
- genotype/phenotype distinction (Peter Taylor and Richard Lewontin)
- molecular (Ken Waters)
- population (Samir Okasha)
genomics and postgenomics (Stephan Guttinger and John Dupré)
geometry
- epistemology of (Jeremy Gray)
- finitism in (Jean Paul Van Bendegem)
- in the 19th century (Roberto Torretti)
Gerard, Alexander — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
German Philosophy
- in the 18th century, prior to Kant (Brigitte Sassen)
Gersonides (Tamar Rudavsky)
Giles of Rome (Roberto Lambertini)
given, the — see justification, epistemic: foundationalist theories of
global democracy — see democracy: global
globalization (William Scheuerman)
global justice — see justice: global
God
- concepts of (William Wainwright)
- and other necessary beings (Matthew Davidson)
God, arguments for belief in
- pragmatic — see pragmatic arguments and belief in God
God, arguments for the existence of
- cosmological — see cosmological argument
- Descartes’ ontological — see Descartes, René: ontological argument
- moral arguments (C. Stephen Evans)
- ontological — see ontological arguments
- teleological — see teleology: teleological arguments for God’s existence
Godfrey of Fontaines (John Wippel)
Godwin, William (Mark Philp)
Gödel, Kurt (Juliette Kennedy)
- incompleteness theorems (Panu Raatikainen)
Goodman, Nelson (Daniel Cohnitz and Marcus Rossberg)
- aesthetics (Alessandro Giovannelli)
goodness, perfect (Mark Murphy)
Gorampa [go rams pa] (Constance Kassor)
grammar
- categorial — see grammar: typelogical
- typelogical (Michael Moortgat)
gratitude (Tony Manela)
Green, Thomas Hill (Colin Tyler)
Gregory of Rimini (Christopher Schabel)
Grice, Paul (Richard E. Grandy and Richard Warner)
Grosseteste, Robert (Neil Lewis)
Grotius, Hugo (Jon Miller)
grounding, metaphysical (Ricki Bliss and Kelly Trogdon)
group rights — see rights: group

H [jump to top]

Habermas, Jürgen (James Bohman and William Rehg)
haecceitism (Sam Cowling)
haecceity — see substance
- medieval theories of (Richard Cross)
Halevi, Judah (Barry Kogan)
Hamann, Johann Georg (Gwen Griffith-Dickson)
Hamilton, William — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 19th century
happiness (Dan Haybron)
Hare, Richard Mervyn (Anthony Price)
Hartley, David (Richard Allen)
Hartmann, Nicolai (Roberto Poli)
Hartshorne, Charles (Dan Dombrowski)
Hayek, Friedrich (David Schmidtz)
health (Dominic Murphy)
heaven and hell in Christian thought (Thomas Talbott)
hedonism (Andrew Moore)
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (Paul Redding)
- aesthetics (Stephen Houlgate)
- dialectics (Julie E. Maybee)
Heidegger, Martin (Michael Wheeler)
- aesthetics (Iain Thomson)
hell and heaven in Christian thought — see heaven and hell in Christian thought
Helmholtz, Hermann von (Lydia Patton)
Hempel, Carl (James Fetzer)
Henry, Michel (Frédéric Seyler)
Henry of Ghent (Pasquale Porro)
Heraclitus (Daniel W. Graham)
Herbart, Johann Friedrich (Alan Kim)
Herder, Johann Gottfried von (Michael Forster)
heritability (Stephen M. Downes)
- inheritance systems — see inheritance systems
hermeneutics (C. Mantzavinos)
Heytesbury, William (Miroslav Hanke and Elzbieta Jung)
hiddenness of God (Daniel Howard-Snyder and Adam Green)
Hilbert, David
- controversy with Frege — see Frege, Gottlob: controversy with Hilbert
- program in the foundations of mathematics (Richard Zach)
Hippias — see Sophists, The
history, philosophy of (Daniel Little)
Hobbes, Thomas (Stewart Duncan)
- moral and political philosophy (Sharon A. Lloyd and Susanne Sreedhar)
- philosophy of science (Marcus P. Adams)
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
Holbach, Paul-Henri Thiry (Baron) d’ (Michael LeBuffe)
holes (Roberto Casati and Achille Varzi)
Holkot [Holcot], Robert (Hester Gelber and John T. Slotemaker)
Home, Henry [Lord Kames] — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
homosexuality (Brent Pickett)
Hook, Sidney (David Sidorsky and Robert Talisse)
hope (Claudia Bloeser and Titus Stahl)
Horkheimer, Max (J.C. Berendzen)
human enhancement (Eric Juengst and Daniel Moseley)
human genome project (Lisa Gannett)
humanism
- civic — see civic humanism
human rights — see rights: human
human test subjects — see ethics, biomedical: clinical research
Humboldt, Wilhelm von (Kurt Mueller-Vollmer and Markus Messling)
Hume, David (William Edward Morris and Charlotte R. Brown)
- aesthetics (Theodore Gracyk)
- and Kant on causality — see Kant, Immanuel: and Hume on causality
- and Kant on morality — see Kant, Immanuel: and Hume on morality
- moral philosophy (Rachel Cohon)
- Newtonianism and Anti-Newtonianism (Eric Schliesser)
- on free will (Paul Russell)
- on religion (Paul Russell and Anders Kraal)
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
humility — see modesty and humility
humor, philosophy of (John Morreall)
Husserl, Edmund (Christian Beyer)
Hutcheson, Francis — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
Hutton, James — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
hybrid logic — see logic: hybrid

I [jump to top]

Iamblichus (Riccardo Chiaradonna and Adrien Lecerf)
Ibn ‘Arabî (William Chittick)
Ibn Bâjja [Avempace] (Josép Puig Montada)
Ibn Daud, Abraham (Resianne Fontaine)
Ibn Ezra, Abraham (Tzvi Langermann)
Ibn Falaquera, Shem Tov — see Falaquera, Shem Tov Ibn
Ibn Gabirol, Solomon [Avicebron] (Sarah Pessin)
Ibn Kammuna (Tzvi Langermann)
Ibn Rushd [Averroes]
- natural philosophy (Josép Puig Montada)
Ibn Sina [Avicenna] (Dimitri Gutas)
- logic (Riccardo Strobino)
- metaphysics (Olga Lizzini)
- natural philosophy (Jon McGinnis)
Ibn Tibbon, Samuel — see Tibbon, Samuel Ibn
idealism (Paul Guyer and Rolf-Peter Horstmann)
identity (Harold Noonan and Ben Curtis)
- of indiscernibles (Peter Forrest)
- over time (Andre Gallois)
- personal — see personal identity
- relative (Harry Deutsch and Pawel Garbacz)
- transworld (Penelope Mackie and Mark Jago)
identity politics (Cressida Heyes)
identity theory of mind — see mind/brain identity theory
ideology, law and — see law: and ideology
idiolects (Alex Barber and Eduardo Garcia Ramirez)
Ikhwân al-Safâ’ (Carmela Baffioni)
imagery, mental — see mental imagery
imagination (Shen-yi Liao and Tamar Gendler)
imitation game — see Turing test
immigration (Christopher Heath Wellman)
immortality — see afterlife
immunology, philosophy of (Alfred I. Tauber)
immutability (Brian Leftow)
impartiality (Troy Jollimore)
implicature (Wayne Davis)
- optimality theoretic and game theoretic approaches (Robert van Rooij and Michael Franke)
implicit bias — see bias, implicit
impossible worlds (Francesco Berto and Mark Jago)
incommensurability
- of scientific theories (Eric Oberheim and Paul Hoyningen-Huene)
- of values — see value: incommensurable
incomparable values — see value: incommensurable
incompatibilism
- (nondeterministic) theories of free will (Randolph Clarke and Justin Capes)
- arguments for (Kadri Vihvelin)
indexicals (David Braun)
Indian Philosophy (Classical)
- concept of emotion (Joerg Tuske)
- epistemology (Stephen Phillips)
- language and testimony (Madhav Deshpande)
- literal-nonliteral distinction (Malcolm Keating)
- logic (Brendan Gillon)
- naturalism (Amita Chatterjee)
- perceptual experience and concepts (Monima Chadha)
individualism, methodological (Joseph Heath)
individuals, biological — see biological individuals
induction
- problem of (Leah Henderson)
inductive logic — see logic: inductive
inequality — see equality
inertial systems — see space and time: inertial frames
inference to the best explanation — see abduction
infinite regress arguments (Ross Cameron)
infinitesimals — see continuity and infinitesimals
informal logic — see logic: informal
information (Pieter Adriaans)
- biological (Peter Godfrey-Smith and Kim Sterelny)
- and logic — see logic: and information
- quantum entanglement and — see quantum theory: quantum entanglement and information
- semantic conceptions of (Luciano Floridi)
information processing
- and thermodynamic entropy (Owen Maroney)
information technology
- and moral values (John Sullins)
- phenomenological approaches to ethics and (Lucas Introna)
- and privacy (Jeroen van den Hoven, Martijn Blaauw, Wolter Pieters, and Martijn Warnier)
informed consent (Nir Eyal)
Ingarden, Roman (Amie Thomasson)
inherence — see substance
inheritance systems (Ehud Lamm)
innate/acquired distinction (Paul Griffiths)
innateness
- and contemporary theories of cognition (Jerry Samet and Deborah Zaitchik)
- historical controversies (Jerry Samet)
- and language (Fiona Cowie)
insolubles [= insolubilia] (Paul Vincent Spade and Stephen Read)
instrumental rationality — see rationality: instrumental
integrity (Damian Cox, Marguerite La Caze, and Michael Levine)
intelligent design, theory of — see creationism
intensional transitive verbs (Graeme Forbes)
intention (Kieran Setiya)
intentionality (Pierre Jacob)
- collective (David P. Schweikard and Hans Bernhard Schmid)
- consciousness and — see consciousness: and intentionality
- in ancient philosophy (Victor Caston)
- phenomenal (David Bourget and Angela Mendelovici)
internal vs. external reasons for action — see reasons for action: internal vs. external
internet research ethics — see ethics: internet research
intrinsic vs. extrinsic properties (Dan Marshall and Brian Weatherson)
introspection (Eric Schwitzgebel)
intuition (Joel Pust)
intuitionism
- ethics — see moral intuitionism
- in the philosophy of mathematics — see mathematics, philosophy of: intuitionism
intuitionistic logic — see logic: intuitionistic
- development of — see logic, history of: intuitionistic logic
intuitionistic type theory — see type theory: intuitionistic
inverted qualia — see qualia: inverted
Israeli, Isaac (Leonard Levin, R. David Walker, and Shalom Sadik)

J [jump to top]

Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich (George di Giovanni and Paolo Livieri)
James, William (Russell Goodman)
James of Viterbo (Antoine Côté)
Japanese Philosophy (Thomas Kasulis)
- aesthetics (Graham Parkes and Adam Loughnane)
- Confucian (John Tucker)
- Kokugaku School [Native Studies School] (Gideon Fujiwara and Peter Nosco)
- Kūkai (John Krummel)
- Kyoto School (Bret W. Davis)
- Nishida Kitarō — see Nishida Kitarō
- Pure Land (Dennis Hirota)
- Watsuji Tetsurô — see Watsuji Tetsurô
- Zen Buddhism (Shigenori Nagatomo)
Jaspers, Karl (Chris Thornhill and Ronny Miron)
Jayarāśi (Piotr Balcerowicz)
Jefferson, Thomas (M. Andrew Holowchak)
Jevons, William Stanley (Bert Mosselmans)
John of Salisbury (Karen Bollermann and Cary Nederman)
Jones, Emily Elizabeth Constance (Gary Ostertag)
Judah Halevi — see Halevi, Judah
judgment
- aesthetic — see aesthetics: aesthetic judgment
judgment aggregation and belief merging — see belief merging and judgment aggregation
justice (David Miller)
- and access to health care — see ethics, biomedical: justice and access to health care
- and bad luck — see luck: justice and bad luck
- and disability — see disability: and justice
- distributive (Julian Lamont and Christi Favor)
- distributive justice and empirical moral psychology — see distributive justice: and empirical moral psychology
- economic — see economics and economic justice
- global (Gillian Brock)
- inequality and health — see ethics, biomedical: justice, inequality, and health
- intergenerational (Lukas Meyer)
- international distributive (Michael Blake and Patrick Taylor Smith)
- retributive (Alec Walen)
- transitional (Nir Eisikovits)
- as a virtue (Mark LeBar and Michael Slote)
justification, epistemic
- a priori — see a priori justification and knowledge
- coherentist theories of (Erik Olsson)
- foundationalist theories of (Ali Hasan and Richard Fumerton)
- internalist vs. externalist conceptions of (George Pappas)
- reliabilism — see reliabilist epistemology
- transmission of — see transmission of justification and warrant
justification, political
- public (Kevin Vallier)

K [jump to top]

Kant
- transcendental idealism (Nicholas F. Stang)
Kant, Immanuel (Michael Rohlf)
- account of reason (Garrath Williams)
- aesthetics and teleology (Hannah Ginsborg)
- critique of metaphysics (Michelle Grier)
- and Hume on causality (Graciela De Pierris and Michael Friedman)
- and Hume on morality (Eric Entrican Wilson and Lara Denis)
- and Leibniz (Catherine Wilson)
- moral philosophy (Robert Johnson and Adam Cureton)
- philosophical development (Martin Schönfeld and Michael Thompson)
- philosophy of mathematics (Lisa Shabel)
- philosophy of religion (Lawrence Pasternack and Philip Rossi)
- philosophy of science (Eric Watkins and Marius Stan)
- social and political philosophy (Frederick Rauscher)
- theory of judgment (Robert Hanna)
- transcendental arguments (Derk Pereboom)
- view of mind and consciousness of self (Andrew Brook)
- views on space and time (Andrew Janiak)
Kaspi, Joseph (Hannah Kasher and Moshe Kahan)
Kepler, Johannes (Daniel A. Di Liscia)
Kierkegaard, Søren (William McDonald)
killing vs. letting die — see doing vs. allowing harm
Kilvington, Richard (Elzbieta Jung)
Kilwardby, Robert (José Filipe Silva)
knowledge
- analysis of (Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa and Matthias Steup)
- a priori — see a priori justification and knowledge
- by acquaintance vs. description (Ali Hasan and Richard Fumerton)
- self- — see self-knowledge
knowledge, value of (Duncan Pritchard, John Turri, and J. Adam Carter)
knowledge how (Jeremy Fantl)
Kochen-Specker theorem — see quantum mechanics: Kochen-Specker theorem
Kokugaku (Native Studies) School — see Japanese Philosophy: Kokugaku School
Kuhn, Thomas (Alexander Bird)
Kumārila (Daniel Arnold)
Kūkai — see Japanese Philosophy: Kūkai

L [jump to top]

Lacan, Jacques (Adrian Johnston)
La Forge, Louis de (Desmond Clarke)
Lakatos, Imre (Alan Musgrave and Charles Pigden)
lambda calculus, the (Jesse Alama and Johannes Korbmacher)
Lange, Friedrich Albert (Nadeem J. Z. Hussain and Lydia Patton)
language of thought hypothesis (Michael Rescorla)
Laozi (Alan Chan)
large cardinals and determinacy — see set theory: large cardinals and determinacy
Latin American Philosophy (Jorge Gracia and Manuel Vargas)
- analytic philosophy in (Diana Ines Perez)
- epistemology — see epistemology: in Latin America
- feminism — see feminist philosophy: Latin American
- liberalism — see liberalism: in Latin America
- metaphilosophical foundations (Susana Nuccetelli)
- philosophy of science — see philosophy of science: in Latin America
- skepticism — see skepticism: in Latin America
Latinx Philosophy (Manuel Vargas)
law
- and ideology (Christine Sypnowich)
- and language (Timothy Endicott)
- limits of — see limits of law
- nature of — see nature of law: natural law theories
- rule of — see rule of law and procedural fairness
laws of nature (John W. Carroll)
- ceteris paribus (Alexander Reutlinger, Gerhard Schurz, and Andreas Hüttemann)
learning, perceptual (Kevin Connolly)
learning theory, formal (Oliver Schulte)
Lefèvre d’Étaples, Jacques (Richard J. Oosterhoff)
legal obligation and authority (Leslie Green)
legal philosophy
- economic analysis of law (Lewis Kornhauser)
legal positivism — see nature of law: legal positivism
legal punishment — see punishment, legal
legal reasoning
- interpretation and coherence in (Julie Dickson)
- precedent and analogy in (Grant Lamond)
legal rights (Kenneth Campbell)
legitimacy, political (Fabienne Peter)
Le Grand, Antoine (Patricia Easton)
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (Brandon C. Look)
- ethics (Andrew Youpa)
- Exoteric Philosophy (John Whipple)
- influence on 19th century logic (Volker Peckhaus)
- modal metaphysics (Brandon C. Look)
- on causation (Marc Bobro)
- on the problem of evil (Michael J. Murray and Sean Greenberg)
- philosophy of mind (Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin)
- philosophy of physics (Jeffrey K. McDonough)
Leibowitz, Yeshayahu (Daniel Rynhold)
Leone Ebreo — see Abrabanel, Judah
Leśniewski, Stanisław (Peter Simons)
Leucippus (Sylvia Berryman)
levels of organization in biology (Markus I. Eronen and Daniel Stephen Brooks)
Levinas, Emmanuel (Bettina Bergo)
Lewis, Clarence Irving (Bruce Hunter)
Lewis, David (Brian Weatherson)
- metaphysics (Ned Hall)
liar paradox (Jc Beall, Michael Glanzberg, and David Ripley)
liberal feminism — see feminist philosophy, interventions: liberal feminism
liberalism (Gerald Gaus, Shane D. Courtland, and David Schmidtz)
- in Latin America (Faviola Rivera)
liberation, philosophy of (Eduardo Mendieta)
libertarianism (Bas van der Vossen)
liberty
- positive and negative (Ian Carter)
life (Bruce Weber)
- meaning of (Thaddeus Metz)
lifeworld — see Husserl, Edmund
limits of law (John Stanton-Ife)
linear logic — see logic: linear
linguistics
- computational (Lenhart Schubert)
- philosophy of (Barbara C. Scholz, Francis Jeffry Pelletier, and Geoffrey K. Pullum)
Lipsius, Justus (Jan Papy)
living wills — see advance directives
Llull, Ramon (Ernesto Priani)
location and mereology (Cody Gilmore)
Locke, Alain LeRoy (Jacoby Adeshei Carter)
Locke, John (William Uzgalis)
- moral philosophy (Patricia Sheridan)
- on freedom (Samuel Rickless)
- on personal identity (Jessica Gordon-Roth)
- on real essence (Jan-Erik Jones)
- philosophy of science (Hylarie Kochiras)
- political philosophy (Alex Tuckness)
logic
- action (Krister Segerberg, John-Jules Meyer, and Marcus Kracht)
- algebraic propositional (Ramon Jansana)
- ancient (Susanne Bobzien)
- and artificial intelligence — see artificial intelligence: logic and
- of belief revision (Sven Ove Hansson)
- classical (Stewart Shapiro and Teresa Kouri Kissel)
- combinatory (Katalin Bimbó)
- combining (Walter Carnielli and Marcelo Esteban Coniglio)
- conditionals (Horacio Arlo-Costa)
- connexive (Heinrich Wansing)
- deontic (Paul McNamara)
- dependence (Pietro Galliani)
- dialogical (Laurent Keiff)
- dynamic epistemic (Alexandru Baltag and Bryan Renne)
- epistemic (Rasmus Rendsvig and John Symons)
- for analyzing games (Johan van Benthem and Dominik Klein)
- for analyzing power in normal form games (Paolo Turrini)
- free (John Nolt)
- fuzzy (Petr Cintula, Christian G. Fermüller, and Carles Noguera)
- and games (Wilfrid Hodges and Jouko Väänänen)
- hybrid (Torben Braüner)
- in classical Indian philosophy — see Indian Philosophy (Classical): logic
- independence friendly (Tero Tulenheimo)
- inductive (James Hawthorne)
- infinitary (John L. Bell)
- informal (Leo Groarke)
- and information (Maricarmen Martinez and Sebastian Sequoiah-Grayson)
- intensional (Melvin Fitting)
- intuitionistic (Joan Moschovakis)
- justification (Sergei Artemov and Melvin Fitting)
- linear (Roberto Di Cosmo and Dale Miller)
- many-valued (Siegfried Gottwald)
- of mass expressions — see mass expressions: logic of
- modal (James Garson)
- non-monotonic (Christian Strasser and G. Aldo Antonelli)
- paraconsistent (Graham Priest, Koji Tanaka, and Zach Weber)
- and probability (Lorenz Demey, Barteld Kooi, and Joshua Sack)
- propositional dynamic (Nicolas Troquard and Philippe Balbiani)
- provability (Rineke (L.C.) Verbrugge)
- relevance (Edwin Mares)
- second-order and higher-order (Jouko Väänänen)
- sentence connectives in — see connectives: sentence connectives in formal logic
- substructural (Greg Restall)
- temporal (Valentin Goranko and Antony Galton)
logic, history of
- first-order logic (William Ewald)
- intuitionistic logic (Mark van Atten)
- modal logic (Roberta Ballarin)
- proof theory — see proof theory: development of
- set theory, early — see set theory: early development
logic, normative status of (Florian Steinberger)
logical atomism
- Russell’s (Kevin Klement)
- Wittgenstein’s — see Wittgenstein, Ludwig: logical atomism
logical consequence (Jc Beall, Greg Restall, and Gil Sagi)
- algebraic propositional logic — see logic: algebraic propositional
logical constants (John MacFarlane)
logical constructions (Bernard Linsky)
logical empiricism — see empiricism: logical
logical form (Paul Pietroski)
logical pluralism (Gillian Russell)
logical truth (Mario Gómez-Torrente)
logic and ontology (Thomas Hofweber)
logicism and neologicism (Neil Tennant)
Lotze, Hermann (David Sullivan)
love (Bennett Helm)
loyalty (John Kleinig)
luck
- justice and bad luck (Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen)
- moral (Dana K. Nelkin)
Lucretius (David Sedley)
Lukács, Georg [György] (Titus Stahl)
Łukasiewicz, Jan (Peter Simons)
Lvov-Warsaw School (Jan Woleński)
lying and deception
- definition of (James Edwin Mahon)
Lyotard, Jean François (Peter Gratton)

M [jump to top]

Macaulay, Catharine (Karen Green)
Mach, Ernst (Paul Pojman)
Machiavelli, Niccolò (Cary Nederman)
macroevolution, philosophy of (Derek Turner and Joyce C. Havstad)
Madhyamaka (Richard Hayes)
Maimon, Salomon (Peter Thielke and Yitzhak Y. Melamed)
Maimonides (Kenneth Seeskin)
- the influence of Islamic thought on (Sarah Pessin)
Malebranche, Nicolas (Tad Schmaltz)
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
- theory of ideas and vision in God (Lawrence Nolan)
Mally, Ernst (Alexander Hieke and Gerhard Zecha)
- deontic logic (Gert-Jan Lokhorst)
manipulation, ethics of (Robert Noggle)
many, problem of (Brian Weatherson)
Marcel, Gabriel (-Honoré) (Brian Treanor and Brendan Sweetman)
Marcus Aurelius (Rachana Kamtekar)
Marcuse, Herbert (Arnold Farr)
Marinella, Lucrezia (Marguerite Deslauriers)
Maritain, Jacques (William Sweet)
markets (Lisa Herzog)
marriage and domestic partnership (Elizabeth Brake)
Marsilius of Inghen (Maarten Hoenen)
Marty, Anton (Robin Rollinger and Hynek Janousek)
Marx, Karl (Jonathan Wolff)
Masham, Lady Damaris (Sarah Hutton)
mass/energy equivalence — see equivalence of mass and energy
mass expressions
- logic of (David Nicolas)
- metaphysics of (Mark Steen)
material constitution (Ryan Wasserman)
materialism — see physicalism
- eliminative (William Ramsey)
mathematical style — see style: in mathematics
mathematics
- constructive (Douglas Bridges and Erik Palmgren)
- explanation in (Paolo Mancosu)
- inconsistent (Chris Mortensen)
- non-deductive methods in (Alan Baker)
mathematics, foundations of
- Dedekind’s contributions to — see Dedekind, Richard: contributions to the foundations of mathematics
- Hilbert’s program — see Hilbert, David: program in the foundations of mathematics
mathematics, philosophy of (Leon Horsten)
- fictionalism (Mark Balaguer)
- formalism (Alan Weir)
- indispensability arguments in the (Mark Colyvan)
- intuitionism (Rosalie Iemhoff)
- Kant — see Kant, Immanuel: philosophy of mathematics
- naturalism (Alexander Paseau)
- nominalism (Otávio Bueno)
- Platonism — see Platonism: in the philosophy of mathematics
- Wittgenstein — see Wittgenstein, Ludwig: philosophy of mathematics
McTaggart, John M. E. (Kris McDaniel)
Mead, George Herbert (Mitchell Aboulafia)
meaning
- normativity of (Kathrin Glüer and Åsa Wikforss)
- of words (Luca Gasparri and Diego Marconi)
meaning, theories of (Jeff Speaks)
meaning holism (Henry Jackman)
means, treating persons as — see treating persons as means
measurement
- in science (Eran Tal)
mechanism in science (Carl Craver and James Tabery)
medicine, philosophy of (Julian Reiss and Rachel A. Ankeny)
medicine: Chinese philosophy — see Chinese Philosophy: Chinese medicine
medieval philosophy (Paul Vincent Spade)
- literary forms of (Eileen Sweeney)
medieval theories of
- analogy — see analogy: medieval theories of
- categories — see categories: medieval theories of
- causation — see causation: medieval theories of
- conscience — see conscience: medieval theories of
- consequence — see consequence, medieval theories of
- demonstration — see demonstration: medieval theories of
- emotion — see emotion: medieval theories of
- future contingents — see future contingents: medieval theories of
- haecceity — see haecceity: medieval theories of
- mental representation — see mental representation: in medieval philosophy
- modality — see modality: medieval theories of
- obligationes — see obligationes, medieval theories of
- practical reason — see practical reason: medieval theories of
- properties of terms — see terms, properties of: medieval theories of
- relations — see relations: medieval theories of
- singular terms — see singular terms: medieval theories of
- syllogism — see syllogism: medieval theories of
- transcendentals — see transcendentals, medieval theories of
Meinong, Alexius (Johann Marek)
Meister Eckhart (Burkhard Mojsisch and Orrin F. Summerell)
memory (Kourken Michaelian and John Sutton)
- epistemological problems of (Thomas D. Senor)
Mencius (Bryan Van Norden)
Mendelssohn, Moses (Daniel Dahlstrom)
mental causation (David Robb and John Heil)
mental content
- causal theories of (Fred Adams and Ken Aizawa)
- externalism about (Joe Lau and Max Deutsch)
- narrow (Curtis Brown)
- nonconceptual (José Bermúdez and Arnon Cahen)
- teleological theories of (Karen Neander)
mental disorder (Jennifer Radden)
mental illness — see mental disorder
mental imagery (Nigel J.T. Thomas)
mental representation (David Pitt)
- in medieval philosophy (Henrik Lagerlund)
mereology (Achille Varzi)
- and location — see location and mereology
- medieval (Andrew Arlig)
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (Ted Toadvine)
Mersenne, Marin (Philippe Hamou)
metaethics (Geoff Sayre-McCord)
metaphor (David Hills)
metaphysics (Peter van Inwagen and Meghan Sullivan)
metaphysics in the 16th century
- Francisco Suárez — see Suárez, Francisco
methodological holism in the social sciences (Julie Zahle)
Mexico
- philosophy in (Guillermo Hurtado)
Mill, Harriet Taylor (Dale E. Miller)
Mill, James (Terence Ball)
Mill, John Stuart (Christopher Macleod)
- moral and political philosophy (David Brink)
mind
- computational theory of (Michael Rescorla)
- in Indian Buddhist Philosophy (Christian Coseru)
- modularity of (Philip Robbins)
mind/brain identity theory (J. J. C. Smart)
miracles (Timothy McGrew)
modal epistemology — see modality: epistemology of
modality
- Descartes and — see Descartes, René: modal metaphysics
- epistemology of (Anand Vaidya)
- impossible worlds — see impossible worlds
- Leibniz and — see Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: modal metaphysics
- medieval theories of (Simo Knuuttila)
- metaphysics of — see actualism
- modal fictionalism — see fictionalism: modal
- necessary and sufficient conditions — see necessary and sufficient conditions
- possible objects — see possible objects
- possible worlds — see possible worlds
- Spinoza and — see Spinoza, Baruch: modal metaphysics
- varieties of (Boris Kment)
modal logic — see logic: modal
- modern origins — see logic, history of: modal logic
- philosophical aspects of multi-modal logic — see multi-modal logic, philosophical aspects of
models in science (Roman Frigg and Stephan Hartmann)
model theory (Wilfrid Hodges)
- first-order (Wilfrid Hodges and Thomas Scanlon)
modesty and humility (Nicolas Bommarito)
Mohism — see Chinese Philosophy: Mohism
Mohist Canons — see Chinese Philosophy: Mohist Canons
molecular biology (James Tabery, Monika Piotrowska, and Lindley Darden)
Molyneux’s problem (Marjolein Degenaar and Gert-Jan Lokhorst)
money and finance, philosophy of (Boudewijn de Bruin, Lisa Herzog, Martin O'Neill, and Joakim Sandberg)
monism (Jonathan Schaffer)
- anomalous — see anomalous monism
- neutral — see neutral monism
- Russellian (Torin Alter and Derk Pereboom)
monotheism (William Wainwright)
Montaigne, Michel de (Marc Foglia)
Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de (Hilary Bok)
Moore, George Edward (Tom Baldwin)
- moral philosophy (Thomas Hurka)
moral anti-realism (Richard Joyce)
moral character — see character, moral
moral cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism — see cognitivism vs. non-cognitivism, moral
moral dilemmas (Terrance McConnell)
moral epistemology (Richmond Campbell)
- a priorism in (Michael DePaul and Amelia Hicks)
moral generalism — see moral particularism: and moral generalism
moral intuitionism (Philip Stratton-Lake)
morality
- and evolutionary biology (William FitzPatrick)
morality, definition of (Bernard Gert and Joshua Gert)
moral luck — see luck: moral
moral motivation (Connie S. Rosati)
moral naturalism — see naturalism: moral
moral non-naturalism (Michael Ridge)
moral particularism (Jonathan Dancy)
- and moral generalism (Michael Ridge and Sean McKeever)
moral psychology
- empirical approaches (John Doris, Stephen Stich, Jonathan Phillips, and Lachlan Walmsley)
moral realism (Geoff Sayre-McCord)
moral reasoning — see reasoning: moral
moral relativism (Chris Gowans)
moral responsibility (Andrew Eshleman)
- the epistemic condition (Fernando Rudy-Hiller)
moral sentimentalism (Antti Kauppinen)
moral skepticism (Walter Sinnott-Armstrong)
moral status
- of animals — see animals, moral status of
moral status, grounds of (Agnieszka Jaworska and Julie Tannenbaum)
More, Henry (John Henry)
More, Thomas (Dominic Baker-Smith)
motivation
- moral — see moral motivation
Mulla Sadra (Sajjad Rizvi)
multi-modal logic, philosophical aspects of (Sonja Smets and Fernando Velázquez-Quesada)
multiculturalism (Sarah Song)
multiple realizability (John Bickle)
music, philosophy of (Andrew Kania)
mysticism (Jerome Gellman)
myths, Plato’s — see Plato: myths

N [jump to top]

Nāgārjuna (Jan Christoph Westerhoff)
names (Sam Cumming)
nationalism (Nenad Miscevic)
Native Studies (Kokugaku) School — see Japanese Philosophy: Kokugaku School
Natorp, Paul (Alan Kim)
naturalism (David Papineau)
- in epistemology — see epistemology: naturalism in
- in legal philosophy (Brian Leiter and Matthew X. Etchemendy)
- in the philosophy of mathematics — see mathematics, philosophy of: naturalism
- moral (Matthew Lutz and James Lenman)
natural kinds (Alexander Bird and Emma Tobin)
natural law
- tradition in ethics — see ethics: natural law tradition
natural philosophy
- in the Renaissance (Eva Del Soldato)
natural selection (Robert Brandon)
- units and levels of (Elisabeth Lloyd)
nature of law (Andrei Marmor and Alexander Sarch)
- interpretivist theories (Nicos Stavropoulos)
- legal positivism (Leslie Green)
- natural law theories (John Finnis)
- pure theory of law (Andrei Marmor)
Navya-Nyāya — see Early Modern India, analytic philosophy in
necessary and sufficient conditions (Andrew Brennan)
necessary beings
- and God — see God: and other necessary beings
needs, in moral and political philosophy (Gillian Brock and David Miller)
negation (Laurence R. Horn and Heinrich Wansing)
Négritude (Souleymane Bachir Diagne)
Neo-Daoism (Alan Chan)
neo-Kantianism (Jeremy Heis)
Neoplatonism (Christian Wildberg)
Neurath, Otto (Jordi Cat)
neuroethics (Adina Roskies)
neuroscience, philosophy of (John Bickle, Peter Mandik, and Anthony Landreth)
neutral monism (Leopold Stubenberg)
Newton, Isaac (George Smith)
- Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (George Smith)
- philosophy (Andrew Janiak)
- views on space, time, and motion (Robert Rynasiewicz)
Nicholas of Autrecourt [de Altricuria, Autricuria, Ultricuria, Autricort] (Hans Thijssen)
Nicolas of Cusa — see Cusanus, Nicolaus
Nietzsche, Friedrich (R. Lanier Anderson)
- life and works (Robert Wicks)
- moral and political philosophy (Brian Leiter)
Nishida Kitarō (John C. Maraldo)
noema — see Husserl, Edmund
nominalism
- in metaphysics (Gonzalo Rodriguez-Pereyra)
- in the philosophy of mathematics — see mathematics, philosophy of: nominalism
non-naturalism, moral — see moral non-naturalism
nonconceptual content — see mental content: nonconceptual
nonexistent objects (Maria Reicher)
nonidentity problem (M. A. Roberts)
normal form games
- logics for analyzing power in — see logic: for analyzing power in normal form games
norms of cooperation — see social norms
Norris, John (June Yang)
nothingness (Roy Sorensen)
Novalis [Georg Friedrich Philipp von Hardenberg] (Kristin Gjesdal)
Nozick, Robert
- political philosophy (Eric Mack)
Numenius (George Karamanolis)

O [jump to top]

Oakeshott, Michael (Terry Nardin)
object (Bradley Rettler and Andrew M. Bailey)
objectivity
- scientific — see scientific objectivity
obligation
- legal — see legal obligation and authority
obligationes, medieval theories of (Paul Vincent Spade and Mikko Yrjönsuuri)
obligations
- special (Diane Jeske)
occasionalism (Sukjae Lee)
Ockham [Occam], William (Paul Vincent Spade and Claude Panaccio)
Olivi, Peter John (Robert Pasnau and Juhana Toivanen)
Olympiodorus (Christian Wildberg)
omnipotence (Joshua Hoffman and Gary Rosenkrantz)
omnipresence (Edward Wierenga)
omniscience (Edward Wierenga)
ontological arguments (Graham Oppy)
ontological commitment (Phillip Bricker)
ontological dependence — see dependence, ontological
ontology
- social — see social ontology
ontology of art, history of (Paisley Livingston)
operationalism (Hasok Chang)
ordinary objects (Daniel Z. Korman)
Oresme, Nicole (Stefan Kirschner)
Origen (Mark J. Edwards)
original position (Samuel Freeman)
Ortega y Gasset, José (Oliver Holmes)
other minds (Anita Avramides)
ownership, property and — see property and ownership

P [jump to top]

pacifism (Andrew Fiala)
pain (Murat Aydede)
Paine, Thomas (Mark Philp)
panentheism (John Culp)
panpsychism (Philip Goff, William Seager, and Sean Allen-Hermanson)
pantheism (William Mander)
paradox
- Curry’s — see Curry’s paradox
- Fitch’s paradox of knowability — see Fitch’s paradox of knowability
- of the liar — see liar paradox
- Russell’s paradox — see Russell’s paradox
- Simpson’s paradox — see Simpson’s paradox
- Skolem’s (Timothy Bays)
- St. Petersburg paradox — see St. Petersburg paradox
- of suspense — see suspense, paradox of
- Zeno’s paradoxes — see Zeno of Elea: Zeno’s paradoxes
- and contemporary logic (Andrea Cantini and Riccardo Bruni)
- epistemic — see epistemic paradoxes
parenthood and procreation (Elizabeth Brake and Joseph Millum)
Parmenides (John Palmer)
part/whole — see mereology
Pascal, Blaise (Desmond Clarke)
Pascal’s wager (Alan Hájek)
paternalism (Gerald Dworkin)
patriotism (Igor Primoratz)
Patrizi, Francesco (Fred Purnell)
Paul of Venice (Alessandro Conti)
Peirce, Benjamin (Ivor Grattan-Guinness and Alison Walsh)
Peirce, Charles Sanders (Robert Burch)
- logic (Sun-Joo Shin and Eric Hammer)
- theory of signs (Albert Atkin)
Penbygull, William (Alessandro Conti)
perception
- action-based theories — see action-based theories of perception
- auditory (Casey O'Callaghan)
- the contents of (Susanna Siegel)
- the disjunctive theory of (Matthew Soteriou)
- epistemological problems of (Jack Lyons)
- experience and justification (Nicholas Silins)
- the problem of (Tim Crane and Craig French)
perceptual learning — see learning, perceptual
perfectionism, in moral and political philosophy (Steven Wall)
persistence — see temporal parts
personal identity (Eric T. Olson)
- and ethics (David Shoemaker)
personalism (Thomas D. Williams and Jan Olof Bengtsson)
personal relationship goods (Anca Gheaus)
persons — see personal identity
persons, treating as means — see treating persons as means
Peter of Spain [= Petrus Hispanus] (Joke Spruyt)
Petrizi, Joane (Tengiz Iremadze)
phenomenal intentionality — see intentionality: phenomenal
phenomenology (David Woodruff Smith)
- of the Munich and Göttingen Circles (Alessandro Salice)
Philip the Chancellor (Colleen McCluskey)
Philodemus (David Blank)
Philolaus (Carl Huffman)
Philo of Alexandria (Carlos Lévy)
Philo of Larissa (Charles Brittain)
Philoponus (Christian Wildberg)
philosophy of science
- in Latin America (Alberto Cordero)
Philo the Dialectician — see Dialectical School
physicalism (Daniel Stoljar)
physics
- experiment in (Allan Franklin and Slobodan Perovic)
- holism and nonseparability (Richard Healey)
- intertheory relations in (Robert Batterman)
- quantum field theory — see quantum theory: quantum field theory
- Reichenbach’s common cause principle (Frank Arntzenius)
- structuralism in (Heinz-Juergen Schmidt)
- symmetry and symmetry breaking (Katherine Brading, Elena Castellani, and Nicholas Teh)
physis and nomos — see Sophists, The
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni (Brian Copenhaver)
pineal gland — see Descartes, René: and the pineal gland
Plato (Richard Kraut)
- aesthetics (Nickolas Pappas)
- Callicles and Thrasymachus (Rachel Barney)
- Cratylus (David Sedley)
- ethics (Dorothea Frede)
- ethics and politics in The Republic (Eric Brown)
- friendship and eros (C. D. C. Reeve)
- method and metaphysics in the Sophist and Statesman (Mary Louise Gill)
- middle period metaphysics and epistemology (Allan Silverman)
- myths (Catalin Partenie)
- on knowledge in the Theaetetus (Sophie Grace Chappell)
- on utopia (Chris Bobonich and Katherine Meadows)
- Parmenides (Samuel Rickless)
- rhetoric and poetry (Charles L. Griswold)
- shorter ethical works (Paul Woodruff)
- Timaeus (Donald Zeyl and Barbara Sattler)
Platonism
- in metaphysics (Mark Balaguer)
- in the philosophy of mathematics (Øystein Linnebo)
pleasure (Leonard D. Katz)
Plotinus (Lloyd Gerson)
pluralism
- religious — see religious diversity
plurality of forms — see binarium famosissimum
plural quantification (Øystein Linnebo)
Plutarch (George Karamanolis)
Poincaré, Henri (Gerhard Heinzmann and David Stump)
Polgar, Isaac — see Polqar, Isaac
political obligation (Richard Dagger and David Lefkowitz)
political philosophy
- ancient (Melissa Lane)
- medieval (John Kilcullen and Jonathan Robinson)
political realism
- in international relations (W. Julian Korab-Karpowicz)
political theory and religion — see religion and political theory
Polqar, Isaac (Racheli Haliva)
Pomponazzi, Pietro (Craig Martin)
Popper, Karl (Stephen Thornton)
population genetics — see genetics: population
pornography
- and censorship (Caroline West)
Porphyry (Eyjólfur Emilsson)
Porta, Giambattista della (Sergius Kodera)
Port Royal Logic (Jill Buroker)
possible objects (Takashi Yagisawa)
possible worlds (Christopher Menzel)
postmodernism (Gary Aylesworth)
Poulain de la Barre, François (Desmond Clarke)
poverty of the stimulus argument — see innateness: and language
practical reason (R. Jay Wallace)
- medieval theories of (Anthony Celano)
- and the structure of actions (Elijah Millgram)
pragmatic arguments and belief in God (Jeff Jordan)
pragmatics (Kepa Korta and John Perry)
- defaults in — see defaults in semantics and pragmatics
pragmatism (Catherine Legg and Christopher Hookway)
prayer
- petitionary (Scott A. Davison)
predicate calculus — see logic: classical
prediction versus accommodation (Eric Christian Barnes)
predictivism — see prediction versus accommodation
preferences (Sven Ove Hansson and Till Grüne-Yanoff)
preformationism — see developmental biology: epigenesis and preformationism
pregnancy, birth, and medicine (Rebecca Kukla and Katherine Wayne)
prenatal testing and screening — see eugenics
presentism (David Ingram and Jonathan Tallant)
Presocratic Philosophy (Patricia Curd)
presupposition (David I. Beaver and Bart Geurts)
Prichard, Harold Arthur (Jonathan Dancy)
Principia Mathematica (Bernard Linsky and Andrew David Irvine)
- notation in (Bernard Linsky)
principle of sufficient reason (Yitzhak Y. Melamed and Martin Lin)
Prior, Arthur (B. Jack Copeland)
prisoner’s dilemma (Steven Kuhn)
privacy (Judith DeCew)
- and information technology — see information technology: and privacy
- and medicine — see ethics, biomedical: privacy and medicine
private language (Stewart Candlish and George Wrisley)
probabilities, imprecise (Seamus Bradley)
probabilities, indeterminate — see probabilities, imprecise
probability, in medieval and Renaissance philosophy (Rudolf Schuessler)
probability, interpretations of (Alan Hájek)
probability and logic — see logic: and probability
procedural fairness — see rule of law and procedural fairness
process philosophy (Johanna Seibt)
process theism (Donald Viney)
Proclus (Christoph Helmig and Carlos Steel)
procreation — see parenthood and procreation
Prodicus — see Sophists, The
progress (Margaret Meek Lange)
promises (Allen Habib)
proof theory (Michael Rathjen and Wilfried Sieg)
- development of (Jan von Plato)
properties (Francesco Orilia and Chris Swoyer)
- emergent — see emergent properties
- essential vs. accidental — see essential vs. accidental properties
property
- intellectual (Adam Moore and Ken Himma)
property and ownership (Jeremy Waldron)
prophecy (Scott A. Davison)
propositional attitude reports (Michael Nelson)
propositional function (Edwin Mares)
propositions (Matthew McGrath and Devin Frank)
- singular (Greg Fitch and Michael Nelson)
- structured (Jeffrey C. King)
providence, divine (Hugh J. McCann and Daniel M. Johnson)
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (Kevin Corrigan and L. Michael Harrington)
pseudo-science, science and — see science: and pseudo-science
psyche — see soul, ancient theories of
psychiatry, philosophy of (Dominic Murphy)
psychologism (Martin Kusch)
psychology
- evolutionary (Stephen M. Downes)
public health
- ethics (Ruth Faden and Sirine Shebaya)
publicity (Axel Gosseries and Tom Parr)
public reason (Jonathan Quong)
Pufendorf, Samuel Freiherr von
- moral and political philosophy (Michael Seidler)
punishment (Hugo Adam Bedau and Erin Kelly)
punishment, legal (Antony Duff and Zachary Hoskins)
Pyrrho (Richard Bett)
Pyrrhonism — see skepticism: ancient
Pythagoras (Carl Huffman)
Pythagoreanism (Carl Huffman)

Q [jump to top]

Qing philosophy — see Chinese Philosophy: Qing philosophy
qualia (Michael Tye)
- inverted (Alex Byrne)
- knowledge argument (Martine Nida-Rümelin)
qualiton — see tropes
quantifiers and quantification (Gabriel Uzquiano)
quantum mechanics (Jenann Ismael)
- action at a distance in (Joseph Berkovitz)
- Bell’s Theorem — see Bell’s Theorem
- Bohmian mechanics (Sheldon Goldstein)
- collapse theories (Giancarlo Ghirardi)
- consistent histories approach (Robert B. Griffiths)
- Copenhagen interpretation of (Jan Faye)
- Everett’s relative-state formulation of (Jeffrey Barrett)
- Kochen-Specker theorem (Carsten Held)
- many-worlds interpretation of (Lev Vaidman)
- modal interpretations of (Olimpia Lombardi and Dennis Dieks)
- relational (Federico Laudisa and Carlo Rovelli)
- retrocausality (Simon Friederich and Peter W. Evans)
- the role of decoherence in (Guido Bacciagaluppi)
quantum theory
- Bayesian and pragmatist views (Richard Healey)
- and consciousness (Harald Atmanspacher)
- the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen argument in (Arthur Fine)
- identity and individuality in (Steven French)
- and mathematical rigor (Fred Kronz and Tracy Lupher)
- the measurement problem — see quantum theory: philosophical issues in
- philosophical issues in (Wayne Myrvold)
- quantum computing (Amit Hagar and Michael Cuffaro)
- quantum entanglement and information (Jeffrey Bub)
- quantum field theory (Meinard Kuhlmann)
- quantum gravity (Steven Weinstein and Dean Rickles)
- quantum logic and probability theory (Alexander Wilce)
- uncertainty principle in — see Uncertainty Principle
questions (Charles Cross and Floris Roelofsen)
Quine, Willard van Orman
Quine, Willard Van Orman (Peter Hylton and Gary Kemp)
New Foundations (Thomas Forster)
quotation (Herman Cappelen, Ernest Lepore, and Matthew McKeever)

R [jump to top]

race (Michael James)
Radulphus Brito (Ana María Mora-Márquez and Iacopo Costa)
Ramsay, Allan — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Ramsey, Frank (Fraser MacBride, Mathieu Marion, María José Frápolli, Dorothy Edgington, Edward Elliott, Sebastian Lutz, and Jeffrey Paris)
- and intergenerational welfare economics (Partha Dasgupta)
Ramus, Petrus (Erland Sellberg)
Rand, Ayn (Neera K. Badhwar and Roderick T. Long)
randomness
- versus chance — see chance: versus randomness
rational choice, normative
- expected utility (R. A. Briggs)
rationalism vs. empiricism (Peter Markie)
rationality
- Bayesian — see epistemology: Bayesian
- bounded — see bounded rationality
- epistemic foundations of game theory — see game theory: epistemic foundations of
- historicist theories of (Thomas Nickles)
- instrumental (Niko Kolodny and John Brunero)
Rawls, John (Leif Wenar)
realism (Alexander Miller)
- challenges to metaphysical (Drew Khlentzos)
- moral — see moral realism
- political, in international relations — see political realism: in international relations
- scientific — see scientific realism
- structural — see structural realism
- and theory change in science (Stathis Psillos)
reasoning
- automated (Frederic Portoraro)
- by analogy — see analogy and analogical reasoning
- defeasible (Robert Koons)
- moral (Henry S. Richardson)
reasons for action
- agent-neutral vs. agent-relative (Michael Ridge)
- internal vs. external (Stephen Finlay and Mark Schroeder)
- justification, motivation, explanation (Maria Alvarez)
recognition (Mattias Iser)
reconciliation (Linda Radzik and Colleen Murphy)
recursion — see recursion
recursive functions (Piergiorgio Odifreddi and S. Barry Cooper)
redistribution (Christian Barry)
reduction, scientific (Raphael van Riel and Robert Van Gulick)
- in biology (Ingo Brigandt and Alan Love)
- in physics — see physics: intertheory relations in
reference (Eliot Michaelson and Marga Reimer)
reflective equilibrium (Norman Daniels)
Regius, Henricus (Desmond Clarke)
Rehberg, August Wilhelm (Fred Beiser)
Reichenbach, Hans (Clark Glymour and Frederick Eberhardt)
Reid, Thomas (Ryan Nichols and Gideon Yaffe)
- ethics (Terence Cuneo)
- on memory and personal identity (Rebecca Copenhaver)
Reinach, Adolf (James DuBois and Barry Smith)
Reinhold, Karl Leonhard (Dan Breazeale)
reism (Jan Woleński)
relations (Fraser MacBride)
- medieval theories of (Jeffrey Brower)
relativism (Maria Baghramian and J. Adam Carter)
- moral — see moral relativism
relaton — see tropes
reliabilist epistemology (Alvin Goldman and Bob Beddor)
religion
- epistemology of (Peter Forrest)
- feminist philosophy of — see feminist philosophy, interventions: philosophy of religion
- and morality (John Hare)
- philosophy of (Charles Taliaferro)
- and science (Helen De Cruz)
religion, natural — see theology, natural and natural religion
religion, phenomenology of (Mark Wynn)
religion and political theory (Chris Eberle and Terence Cuneo)
religious diversity (David Basinger)
religious experience (Mark Webb)
religious language (Michael Scott)
reparations, Black (Bernard Boxill)
replication and reproduction (John S. Wilkins and Pierrick Bourrat)
representation, political (Suzanne Dovi)
representation, scientific — see scientific representation
reproducibility, scientific (Fiona Fidler and John Wilcox)
republicanism (Frank Lovett)
repugnant conclusion, the (Gustaf Arrhenius, Jesper Ryberg, and Torbjörn Tännsjö)
respect (Robin S. Dillon)
responsibility
- collective (Marion Smiley)
retributive justice — see justice: retributive
revolution (Allen Buchanan)
Richard the Sophister [Ricardus Sophista, Magister abstractionum] (Paul Streveler)
Rickert, Heinrich (Andrea Staiti)
Ricoeur, Paul (David Pellauer and Bernard Dauenhauer)
rights (Leif Wenar)
- of children (David William Archard)
- civil — see civil rights
- group (Peter Jones)
- human (James Nickel)
- legal — see legal rights
rigid designators (Joseph LaPorte)
risk (Sven Ove Hansson)
role obligations — see obligations: special
Rorty, Richard (Bjørn Ramberg)
Rosenstock-Huessy, Eugen (Wayne Cristaudo)
Rosenzweig, Franz (Benjamin Pollock)
Rosmini, Antonio (Denis Cleary)
Ross, William David (Anthony Skelton)
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (Christopher Bertram)
Royce, Josiah (Kelly A. Parker)
Rufus, Richard — see Richard the Sophister
rule consequentialism — see consequentialism: rule
rule of law and procedural fairness (Jeremy Waldron)
Russell, Bertrand (Andrew David Irvine)
- logical atomism — see logical atomism: Russell’s
- moral philosophy (Charles Pigden)
Russell’s paradox (Andrew David Irvine and Harry Deutsch)
Ryle, Gilbert (Julia Tanney)

S [jump to top]

Saadya [Saadiah] (Sarah Pessin)
Śāntarakṣita (James Blumenthal and James Apple)
Śāntideva (Charles Goodman)
Sakya Paṇḍita [sa skya paṇ ḍi ta] (Jonathan C. Gold)
sale of human organs (Stephen Wilkinson)
Salmon, Wesley (Maria Carla Galavotti)
Santayana, George (Herman Saatkamp and Martin Coleman)
Sartre, Jean-Paul (Thomas Flynn)
scepticism — see skepticism
Scheler, Max (Zachary Davis and Anthony Steinbock)
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von (Andrew Bowie)
schema (John Corcoran and Idris Samawi Hamid)
Schiller, Friedrich (Lydia L. Moland)
Schlegel, August Wilhelm von (Katia D. Hay)
Schlegel, Friedrich (Allen Speight)
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst (Michael Forster)
Schlick, Moritz (Thomas Oberdan)
Schmitt, Carl (Lars Vinx)
Scholem, Gershom (Shaul Magid)
Scholz, Heinrich (Volker Peckhaus)
School of Names (Chris Fraser)
School of Salamanca (Thomas Izbicki and Matthias Kaufmann)
Schopenhauer, Arthur (Robert Wicks)
- aesthetics (Sandra Shapshay)
Schutz, Alfred (Michael Barber)
science
- models in — see models in science
- and pseudo-science (Sven Ove Hansson)
- theory and observation in (James Bogen)
- unity of (Jordi Cat)
scientific discovery (Jutta Schickore)
scientific explanation (James Woodward)
scientific knowledge
- social dimensions of (Helen Longino)
scientific method (Hanne Andersen and Brian Hepburn)
scientific objectivity (Julian Reiss and Jan Sprenger)
scientific progress (Ilkka Niiniluoto)
scientific realism (Anjan Chakravartty)
- and theory change — see realism: and theory change in science
scientific representation (Roman Frigg and James Nguyen)
scientific revolutions (Thomas Nickles)
scientific theories
- incommensurability of — see incommensurability: of scientific theories
- structure of (Rasmus Grønfeldt Winther)
- underdetermination of — see underdetermination, of scientific theories
Scottish Philosophy
- in the 18th Century (Alexander Broadie)
- in the 19th century (Gordon Graham)
Scottus [Scotus] Eriugena [Erigena], John — see Eriugena, John Scottus
Scotus, John Duns — see Duns Scotus, John
Scudéry, Madeleine de (John Conley)
search engines and ethics — see ethics: search engines and
Sebond, Raymond — see Montaigne, Michel de
secession (Allen Buchanan)
self
- feminist perspectives on the — see feminist philosophy, topics: perspectives on the self
- knowledge — see self-knowledge
self-consciousness (Joel Smith)
- phenomenological approaches to (Shaun Gallagher and Dan Zahavi)
self-deception (Ian Deweese-Boyd)
self-doubt, epistemic (Sherrilyn Roush)
self-knowledge (Brie Gertler)
- and externalism — see externalism: and self-knowledge
self-reference (Thomas Bolander)
self-respect — see respect
Sellars, Wilfrid (Willem deVries)
semantic holism — see meaning holism
semantics
- defaults in — see defaults in semantics and pragmatics
- dynamic (Rick Nouwen, Adrian Brasoveanu, Jan van Eijck, and Albert Visser)
- Montague (Theo M. V. Janssen)
- proof-theoretic (Peter Schroeder-Heister)
- two-dimensional (Laura Schroeter)
semiotics
- medieval (Stephan Meier-Oeser)
Seneca (Katja Vogt)
sense-data (Michael Huemer)
sensibility theory — see fitting attitude theories of value
sentimentalism, moral — see moral sentimentalism
set theory (Joan Bagaria)
- alternative axiomatic theories (M. Randall Holmes)
- constructive and intuitionistic ZF (Laura Crosilla)
- continuum hypothesis (Peter Koellner)
- early development (José Ferreirós)
- independence and large cardinals (Peter Koellner)
- large cardinals and determinacy (Peter Koellner)
- non-wellfounded (Lawrence S. Moss)
- Zermelo’s axiomatization of (Michael Hallett)
sex and sexuality (Raja Halwani)
Sextus Empiricus (Benjamin Morison)
Shaftesbury, Lord [Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of] (Michael B. Gill)
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
Sharpe, Johannes (Alessandro Conti)
Shepherd, Mary (Martha Bolton)
Sidgwick, Henry (Barton Schultz)
Simon of Faversham (Ana María Mora-Márquez)
simplicity (Alan Baker)
- divine (William F. Vallicella)
Simpson’s paradox (Gary Malinas and John Bigelow)
simulations in science (Eric Winsberg)
singular terms
- medieval theories of (E. Jennifer Ashworth)
situations
- in natural language semantics (Angelika Kratzer)
skeptical theism (Trent Dougherty)
skepticism (Peter Klein)
- about moral responsibility (Gregg Caruso)
- ancient (Katja Vogt)
- and content externalism (Michael McKinsey)
- in Latin America (Plínio Junqueira Smith and Otávio Bueno)
- medieval (Charles Bolyard)
- moral — see moral skepticism
Skolem’s paradox — see paradox: Skolem’s
Smith, Adam — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
- moral and political philosophy (Samuel Fleischacker)
Smith, John — see Cambridge Platonists
social choice theory (Christian List)
social construction
- naturalistic approaches to (Ron Mallon)
social contract — see contractarianism
- contemporary approaches to (Fred D'Agostino, Gerald Gaus, and John Thrasher)
social epistemology — see epistemology: social
social institutions (Seumas Miller)
socialism (Pablo Gilabert and Martin O'Neill)
social minimum [basic income] (Stuart White)
social networking and ethics (Shannon Vallor)
social norms (Cristina Bicchieri, Ryan Muldoon, and Alessandro Sontuoso)
social ontology (Brian Epstein)
social procedures, formal approaches (Jan van Eijck and Rineke (L.C.) Verbrugge)
sociobiology (Catherine Driscoll)
Socrates (Debra Nails)
sophismata [= sophisms] (Fabienne Pironet and Joke Spruyt)
Sophists, The (C.C.W. Taylor and Mi-Kyoung Lee)
Sorites paradox (Dominic Hyde and Diana Raffman)
sortals (Richard E. Grandy)
soul, ancient theories of (Hendrik Lorenz)
sounds (Roberto Casati and Jerome Dokic)
sovereignty (Daniel Philpott)
space and time
- absolute and relational theories of space and motion (Nick Huggett and Carl Hoefer)
- being and becoming in modern physics (Steven Savitt)
- conventionality of simultaneity (Allen Janis)
- the hole argument (John D. Norton)
- inertial frames (Robert DiSalle)
- singularities and black holes (Erik Curiel)
- supertasks (John Manchak and Bryan W. Roberts)
species (Marc Ereshefsky)
speech acts (Mitchell Green)
Spencer, Herbert (David Weinstein)
Speusippus (Russell Dancy)
Spinoza, Baruch (Steven Nadler)
- modal metaphysics (Samuel Newlands)
- physical theory (Richard Manning)
- political philosophy (Justin Steinberg)
- psychological theory (Michael LeBuffe)
- theory of attributes (Noa Shein)
- theory of emotion — see emotion: 17th and 18th century theories of
square of opposition (Terence Parsons)
Śrīharṣa (Nilanjan Das)
St. Petersburg paradox (Martin Peterson)
states of affairs (Mark Textor)
statistical physics
- Boltzmann’s work in (Jos Uffink)
- philosophy of statistical mechanics (Lawrence Sklar)
statistics, philosophy of (Jan-Willem Romeijn)
Stebbing, Susan (Michael Beaney and Siobhan Chapman)
stem cell research, ethics of — see ethics, biomedical: stem cell research
Sterry, Peter — see Cambridge Platonists
Stevenson, Charles Leslie (Daniel R. Boisvert)
Stewart, Dugald — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Stirner, Max (David Leopold)
Stoicism (Dirk Baltzly)
Strauss, Leo (Leora Batnitzky)
Strawson, Peter Frederick (Paul Snowdon and Anil Gomes)
structuralism
- in physics — see physics: structuralism in
structural realism (James Ladyman)
Stumpf, Carl (Denis Fisette)
style
- in mathematics (Paolo Mancosu)
Suárez, Francisco (Christopher Shields and Daniel Schwartz)
substance (Howard Robinson)
substructural logics — see logic: substructural
Suhrawardi (Roxanne Marcotte)
suicide (Michael Cholbi)
supererogation (David Heyd)
supervenience (Brian McLaughlin and Karen Bennett)
- in ethics (Tristram McPherson)
surrogate decision-making for incompetent individuals — see advance directives
suspense, paradox of (Aaron Smuts)
syllogism
- medieval theories of (Henrik Lagerlund)
symmetry and symmetry breaking — see physics: symmetry and symmetry breaking
synthetic — see analytic/synthetic distinction
Syrianus (Christian Wildberg)
systems and synthetic biology (Sara Green)

T [jump to top]

Taoism — see Daoism
Tarski, Alfred (Mario Gómez-Torrente)
- truth definitions (Wilfrid Hodges)
Taurellus, Nicolaus (Andreas Blank)
techne — see episteme and techne
technology, philosophy of (Maarten Franssen, Gert-Jan Lokhorst, and Ibo van de Poel)
teleology
- teleological arguments for God’s existence (Del Ratzsch and Jeffrey Koperski)
- teleological notions in biology (Colin Allen and Jacob Neal)
- teleological theories of mental content — see mental content: teleological theories of
Telesio, Bernardino (Michaela Boenke)
temporal consciousness — see consciousness: temporal
temporal parts (Katherine Hawley)
tense and aspect (Friedrich Hamm and Oliver Bott)
terms, properties of
- medieval theories of (Stephen Read)
terrorism (Igor Primoratz)
testimony
- epistemological problems of (Jonathan Adler)
theism
- atheism and agnosticism — see atheism and agnosticism
- monotheism — see monotheism
- panentheism — see panentheism
- pantheism — see pantheism
- process — see process theism
- skeptical — see skeptical theism
theology, natural and natural religion (Andrew Chignell and Derk Pereboom)
Theology of Aristotle (Peter Adamson)
Theophrastus (Katerina Ierodiakonou)
theoretical terms in science (Holger Andreas)
thick ethical concepts (Pekka Väyrynen)
Thomas of Erfurt (Jack Zupko)
Thoreau, Henry David (Rick Anthony Furtak)
thought, associationist theories of — see associationist theories of thought
thought experiments (James Robert Brown and Yiftach Fehige)
Thrasymachus — see Plato: Callicles and Thrasymachus
Tibbon, Samuel Ibn (James T. Robinson)
Tibetan epistemology and philosophy of language (Pascale Hugon)
time (Ned Markosian)
- being and becoming in modern physics — see space and time: being and becoming in modern physics
- the experience and perception of (Robin Le Poidevin)
- thermodynamic asymmetry in (Craig Callender)
time machines (John Earman, Christian Wüthrich, and John Manchak)
time travel (Nicholas J.J. Smith)
- and modern physics (Frank Arntzenius and Tim Maudlin)
Timon of Phlius (Richard Bett)
toleration (Rainer Forst)
torts, theories of the common law of (Jules Coleman, Scott Hershovitz, and Gabriel Mendlow)
torture (Seumas Miller)
touch (Matthew Fulkerson)
transcendental arguments (Robert Stern)
- Kant — see Kant, Immanuel: transcendental arguments
transcendentalism (Russell Goodman)
transcendentals, medieval theories of (Wouter Goris and Jan Aertsen)
trans issues, feminist perspectives on — see feminist philosophy, topics: perspectives on trans issues
transmission of justification and warrant (Luca Moretti and Tommaso Piazza)
transworld identity — see identity: transworld
treating persons as means (Samuel Kerstein)
trinity (Dale Tuggy)
tropes (Anna-Sofia Maurin)
trust (Carolyn McLeod)
truth (Michael Glanzberg)
- axiomatic theories of (Volker Halbach and Graham E. Leigh)
- coherence theory of (James Young)
- correspondence theory of (Marian David)
- deflationary theory of (Daniel Stoljar and Nic Damnjanovic)
- identity theory of (Richard Gaskin)
- pluralist theories of (Nikolaj Jang Lee Linding Pedersen and Cory Wright)
- pragmatic theory of (John Capps)
- revision theory of (Philip Kremer)
- Tarski’s theory of truth — see Tarski, Alfred: truth definitions
truthlikeness (Graham Oddie)
truthmakers (Fraser MacBride)
truth values (Yaroslav Shramko and Heinrich Wansing)
Tsongkhapa (Gareth Sparham)
Turing, Alan (Andrew Hodges)
Turing machines (Liesbeth De Mol)
Turing test (Graham Oppy and David Dowe)
Turnbull, George — see Scottish Philosophy: in the 18th Century
Twardowski, Kazimierz (Arianna Betti)
two truths in India, theory of (Sonam Thakchoe)
two truths in Tibet, theory of (Sonam Thakchoe)
types and tokens (Linda Wetzel)
type theory (Thierry Coquand)
- Church’s type theory (Christoph Benzmüller and Peter Andrews)
- constructive — see type theory: intuitionistic
- intuitionistic (Peter Dybjer and Erik Palmgren)

U [jump to top]

Umar Khayyam (Mehdi Aminrazavi and Glen Van Brummelen)
Uncertainty Principle (Jan Hilgevoord and Jos Uffink)
underdetermination, of scientific theories (Kyle Stanford)
units and levels of natural selection — see natural selection: units and levels of
unity of science — see science: unity of
universal hylomorphism — see binarium famosissimum
universals — see properties
- the medieval problem of (Gyula Klima)
utilitarianism — see consequentialism
- history of (Julia Driver)
- rule — see consequentialism: rule

V [jump to top]

vagueness (Roy Sorensen)
vagueness of composition — see many, problem of
validity — see logical truth
Valla, Lorenzo (Lodi Nauta)
value
- incommensurable (Nien-hê Hsieh)
- intrinsic vs. extrinsic (Michael J. Zimmerman and Ben Bradley)
- of knowledge — see knowledge, value of
- pluralism (Elinor Mason)
value theory (Mark Schroeder)
Vasubandhu (Jonathan C. Gold)
vegetarianism, ethics of (Tyler Doggett)
veil of ignorance — see original position
verbs, intensional transitive — see intensional transitive verbs
verisimilitude — see truthlikeness
Vico, Giambattista (Timothy Costelloe)
Vienna Circle (Thomas Uebel)
virtue
- ancient theories of — see ethics: ancient
virtue ethics — see ethics: virtue
visual thinking in mathematics
- epistemology of (Marcus Giaquinto)
Viterbo, James of — see James of Viterbo
Vives, Juan Luis (Lorenzo Casini)
volition — see free will
Voltaire (J.B. Shank)
voluntarism, theological (Mark Murphy)
voting (Jason Brennan)
- methods (Eric Pacuit)

W [jump to top]

Wang Yangming (Bryan Van Norden)
war (Seth Lazar)
Ward, James (Pierfrancesco Basile)
warrant, transmission of — see transmission of justification and warrant
Watsuji Tetsurô (Robert Carter and Erin McCarthy)
weakness of will (Sarah Stroud and Larisa Svirsky)
Weber, Max (Sung Ho Kim)
Weil, Simone (A. Rebecca Rozelle-Stone and Benjamin P. Davis)
well-being (Roger Crisp)
Weyl, Hermann (John L. Bell and Herbert Korté)
Whewell, William (Laura J. Snyder)
Whichcote, Benjamin — see Cambridge Platonists
Whitehead, Alfred North (Ronald Desmet and Andrew David Irvine)
William of Auvergne (Neil Lewis)
William of Champeaux (Kevin Guilfoy)
William of Ockham — see Ockham, William
William of Sherwood (Sara L. Uckelman)
Williams, Bernard (Sophie Grace Chappell and Nicholas Smyth)
Williams, Donald Cary (Keith Campbell, James Franklin, and Douglas Ehring)
Wilson, John Cook (Mathieu Marion)
wisdom (Sharon Ryan)
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (Anat Biletzki and Anat Matar)
- aesthetics (Garry Hagberg)
- logical atomism (Ian Proops)
- philosophy of mathematics (Victor Rodych)
Wodeham, Adam de (John T. Slotemaker and Jeffrey C. Witt)
Wolff, Christian (Matt Hettche)
Wollstonecraft, Mary (Sylvana Tomaselli)
word meaning — see meaning: of words
world government (Catherine Lu)
worlds
- impossible — see impossible worlds
- possible — see possible worlds
Wright, Chauncey (Jean De Groot)
Wundt, Wilhelm Maximilian (Alan Kim)
Wyclif, John (Alessandro Conti)
- political Philosophy (Stephen Lahey)

X [jump to top]

Xenocrates (Russell Dancy)
Xenophanes (James Lesher)
Xunzi (Paul R. Goldin)

Y [jump to top]

Yorck von Wartenburg, Count Paul (Ingo Farin)

From Rationalism To Existentialism Pdf To Jpg Pdf

Z [jump to top]

Zabarella, Giacomo (Heikki Mikkeli)
Zeno of Elea (John Palmer)
- Zeno’s paradoxes (Nick Huggett)
Zermelo, Ernst
- axiomatization of set theory — see set theory: Zermelo’s axiomatization of
Zhuangzi (Chad Hansen)
Zhu Xi (Kirill Thompson)
zombies (Robert Kirk)